PersonPolitics

Wanli Emperor

The Wanli Emperor (4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), personal name Zhu Yijun, was the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1572 to 1620. He succeeded his father, the Longqing Emperor.

Born~Died Sep 4, 1563 ~ Aug 18, 16200 views in 30 daysLast edited Oct 15, 2026, 2:25 PM

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Details

Born ~ Died: Sep 4, 1563 ~ Aug 18, 1620
Reign: 5 July 1572 – 18 August 1620
Enthronement: 19 July 1572
Predecessor: Longqing Emperor
Successor: Taichang Emperor
Regents: See list Empress Dowager Rensheng (1572–1582), Empress Dowager Xiaoding (1572–1582), Zhang Juzheng (1572–1582)
Born: 4 September 1563, Shuntian Prefecture, Beizhili
Died: 18 August 1620(1620-08-18) (aged 56), Hongde Hall, Forbidden City
Burial: Ding Mausoleum, Ming tombs, Beijing
Consorts: Empress Xiaoduanxian (m. 1578; died 1620) Empress Xiaojing (m. 1582; died 1611)
IssueDetail: Taichang Emperor Zhu Changxun, Prince of Fu Zhu Changying, Prince Duan of Gui Princess Shouning
House: Zhu
Dynasty: Ming
Father: Longqing Emperor
Mother: Lady Li
Religion: Buddhism
Traditional Chinese: 萬曆帝
Simplified Chinese: 万历帝
Hanyu Pinyin: Wànlì Dì
Wade–Giles: Wan4-li4 Ti4
IPA: [wân.lî tî]
Location: 39.9040, 116.4075

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Contents

1.Early life and character
2.Early reign: Zhang Juzheng's leadership (1572–1582)
3.Later reign (1582–1620)
3.1.Early years after Zhang Juzheng (1582–1596)
3.2.Succession dispute (1586–1614)
3.3.Mine tax crisis (1596–1606)
3.4.Reforms in the selection and evaluation of officials
3.5.Donglin movement and factional struggles (1606–1620)
4.Military campaigns
4.1.Rebellion in Ningxia
4.2.Imjin War
4.3.Yang Yinglong rebellion
4.4.Rise of the Jurchens

The Wanli Emperor (4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), personal name Zhu Yijun,¹² was the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1572 to 1620. He succeeded his father, the Longqing Emperor.

The Wanli Emperor ascended the throne at the age of nine. During the first ten years of his reign, Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng effectively led the government, while the Emperor's mother, Lady Li, and the eunuch Feng Bao also played significant roles. The country experienced economic and military prosperity, reaching a level of power not seen since the early 15th century. The Emperor held great respect and appreciation for Zhang Juzheng, but as time passed, various factions within the government openly opposed Zhang, and the Emperor started to consider his influential position a burden. After Zhang died in 1582, the Emperor made significant changes to his administrative arrangements.

Ming China saw three major campaigns in the last decade of the 16th century. A Ming force of 40,000 soldiers had quelled a large rebellion in Ningxia by October 1592, allowing the Ming to shift their focus to Korea. Concurrently, Japan invaded Korea, leading to a joint Korean-Chinese force, including 40,000 Ming soldiers, pushing the Japanese out of most of Korea and forcing them to retreat to the southeast coast by 1593. In 1597, a second Japanese invasion was thwarted, and the suppression of the Yang Yinglong rebellion in southwest China concluded in a few months from 1599 due to Ming forces concentrating there amidst the ongoing war with Japan. In the final years of the Wanli era, the Jurchens grew stronger on the northeastern frontiers and posed a significant threat. In 1619, they defeated the Ming armies in the Battle of Sarhu and captured part of Liaodong.

Over time, the Emperor grew increasingly disillusioned with the constant demoralizing attacks and counterattacks from officials, causing him to become increasingly isolated. In the 1580s and 1590s, he attempted to promote his third son, , as heir to the throne, but , . This led to ongoing conflicts between the Emperor and his ministers for over fifteen years. Eventually, the Emperor appointed Zhu Changluo as heir in 1601, and Zhu Changluo later succeeded his father as the Taichang Emperor in 1620. In 1596, the Wanli Emperor attempted to establish a parallel administration composed of eunuchs, separate from the officials who had traditionally governed the empire, but this effort was abandoned in 1606. The governance of the country remained in the hands of Confucian intellectuals, who were often embroiled in disputes with each other. The opposition continued to criticize the Emperor and his followers, while pro-government officials were divided based on their regional origins.

This page is based on “Wanli Emperor” from English Wikipedia, (r1376756128) CC BY-SA 4.0 used under the license. The original authors are listed in its page history.

Last edited Oct 15, 2026, 2:25 PM · r68945 · Text is available under CC BY-SA 4.0.

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Simplified Chinese: 朱翊钧; traditional Chinese: 朱翊鈞; pinyin: Zhū Yìjūn ↩
Art name: Yuzhai (Simplified Chinese: 禹斋; traditional Chinese: 禹齋; pinyin: Yǔzhāi)4 ↩
Mote (2003), pp. 724, 727. ↩
Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 367. ↩
Mote (2003), p. 724. ↩
Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. xxi. ↩
Theobald, Ulrich (17 January 2014). "Ming Shenzong 明神宗, the Wanli Emperor 萬曆". ChinaKnowledge.de. Retrieved 15 September 2018. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 514. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Swope (2008), p. 74. ↩
He learned to read at the age of four.11 ↩
Duindam (2016), pp. 64–65. ↩
McMahon (2016), p. 128. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Eunuchs served the Ming emperors not only as guards and servants in the harem but also managed the operations of the entire Forbidden City palace complex. Outside of Beijing, they oversaw the imperial estates, supervised the use of firearms in the army, collected certain taxes and fees, and supervised state workshops. There was no shortage of eunuchs, but rather an excess: although voluntary castration was prohibited, the harsh living conditions of peasants led them to break the law and undergo castration in hopes of a better life in imperial service. In the early 16th century, eunuchs flocked to Beijing to seek employment from the emperor. In 1572, the Wanli Emperor accepted 3250 eunuchs into service; in 1578, 3570; in 1588, over 2000; and in 1601, 4500 (two-thirds for himself and the rest divided among princes of the imperial family). By 1620, over 20,000 castrated men had gathered in Beijing seeking employment; when rejected, they responded by inciting street riots.14 ↩
McMahon (2016), p. 127. ↩
Zheng (2005), pp. 18–19. ↩
In 1958, Chinese archaeologists opened and explored the Wanli Emperor's burial complex. Upon analyzing the bones, it was discovered that they contained a significant amount of morphine, indicating frequent consumption of opium.16 ↩
Huang (1988), p. 515. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Huang (1988), pp. 521–522. ↩
"Enrich the country and strengthen the army", or in Chinese, Fuguo qiang bing (富國強兵), is a phrase from the Zhan Guo Ce that summarizes the (legalist) policy of Shang Yang. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 23. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2008), p. 73. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 523. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 525. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Huang (1988), p. 526. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), pp. 527–528. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 524. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 522. ↩
Swope (2008), p. 72. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 527. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 537. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 528. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 24. ↩ ↩²
Pang (2015), pp. 26–28. ↩
After Feng Bao, in the late 1580s, Zhang Cheng (張誠) rose to a prominent position among the imperial eunuchs. He first led the Directorate of Ceremonial and then, from 1590, the Eastern Depot (secret service), but in 1596, he fell from power and was transferred to the Hongwu Emperor's tomb in Nanjing. The Emperor also confiscated his property and that of his relatives. Following this, Chen Ju (陳矩; 1539–1607), one of the most capable and respected Ming eunuchs, took over the eunuch offices. He was known for his caution, carefulness, and strong sense of duty.33 ↩
Xuyan, 虛言. ↩
Swope (2008), p. 75. ↩
Luk (2016), pp. 70–77. ↩
Zhao (2002), pp. 135–136. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), pp. 528–529. ↩ ↩²
Zhao (2002), pp. 115–116. ↩
Zhao (2002), pp. 143–145. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 529. ↩
In an attempt to avoid this fate, Li Tingji declined the appointment of senior grand secretary, citing illness. He retreated to a desolate temple and persisted in his refusal to hold office for three years and nine months before the Emperor finally signed his retirement in 1613.40 ↩
Miller (2009), p. 28. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 516. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶
Huang (1988), p. 517. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 553. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 554. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2008), p. 82. ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 552–553. ↩
The 180 km long Jia Canal was a major construction project, running parallel to the Grand Canal further east near Xuzhou. Its construction began in 1593 and faced numerous challenges, such as unexpectedly high demand for stone and a shortage of funds.48 It was not until 1603 that work picked up. The canal was finally opened in 1609.44 ↩
The emperors did not write their official correspondence with ink, as was customary, but with red vermilion paste. ↩
Jang (2008), p. 138. ↩
Brook (2010), p. 101. ↩ ↩²
McMahon (2016), p. 130. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
In the Ming dynasty, imperial succession followed the principle of primogeniture. According to the Ancestral Instructions of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the dynasty, the throne was to be inherited by the eldest son born to the emperor and empress, or by his direct heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. Sons born to concubines were excluded from succession.52 ↩
Duindam (2016), pp. 63–64. ↩
Brook (2010), p. 102. ↩ ↩²
McMahon (2016), pp. 131–132. ↩
Dardess (2002), p. 9. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 550. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 517; 550. ↩
Dardess (2002), p. 10. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 555. ↩ ↩²
This was the first meeting between the Emperor and the officials of the "outer court" since 1602.60 At that time, the Emperor fell seriously ill, and in anticipation of his death, he summoned the grand secretaries and ministers. He ordered the drafting of an edict to abolish the mining tax, cancel the contracts for state textile factories in Suzhou and Hangzhou, and porcelain factories in Jiangxi, as well as the dismissal of eunuchs overseeing them and the release of officials imprisoned for criticizing the Emperor. The following day, the Emperor's condition improved, and he withdrew the edict that had already been drafted. This sparked a wave of criticism from many officials towards Senior Grand Secretary Shen Yiguan, for not officially announcing the edict regardless of the Emperor's change of heart.61 ↩
Dardess (2002), p. 15. ↩
Miller (2009), p. 75. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 530. ↩ ↩²
Miller (2009), p. 78. ↩ ↩²
Miller (2009), p. 79. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 531. ↩
Miller (2009), p. 80. ↩
Von Glahn (1996), pp. 114–115. ↩
Miller (2009), p. 93. ↩
Miller (2009), p. 92. ↩
Miller (2009), pp. 93–94. ↩
Wei (2020), p. 94. ↩
Wei (2020), p. 96. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Wei (2020), p. 95. ↩ ↩²
Wei (2020), p. 97. ↩ ↩²
Wei (2020), p. 98. ↩ ↩²
Wei (2020), p. 99. ↩
"Donglin". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 February 2010. ↩
Cheng (2006), p. 522. ↩ ↩²
Elman (1989), p. 393. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 540. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 532. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 533. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 535. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 534. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 544. ↩ ↩²
One example of political issues that the supporters of the Donglin movement focused on was the case of Zhu Huakui, Prince of Chu. His father, Zhu Yingxian, Prince Gong of Chu, died in 1571, and Zhu Huakui, who was born in the same year, was confirmed as the Prince of Chu by the Emperor in 1580. In 1603, thirty members of the imperial family petitioned the Emperor, declaring Zhu Huakui illegitimate and claiming that his alleged father was impotent. They requested that the Emperor strip him of his title. The Donglin supporters successfully pushed for an official investigation involving dozens of officials. The Emperor eventually closed the investigation, declaring the prince legitimate, but the case continued as officials from both sides accused each other of bribery and dishonesty. The Emperor distanced himself from their disputes and did not respond to the accusations.88 ↩
Huang (1988), p. 536. ↩
Fang (2014), pp. 46–47. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 538. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 539. ↩
Zhao Nanxing (趙南星) and, later, Gu Xiancheng were dismissed from their official positions, while Gao Panlong was transferred to the far southern province of Guangdong.93 ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 539–540. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 541. ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 541–542. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 543. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 28. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶
Huang (1988), p. 566. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 34. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Huang (1988), pp. 566–567. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2009), p. 27. ↩
Swope (2008), p. 80. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 82. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 30. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 29. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 31. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 32. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 33. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2008), p. 88. ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 567–572. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Swope (2009), p. 11. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 6. ↩
Swope (2009), p. xiii. ↩
Swope (2009), pp. 123–125. ↩
Swope (2009), pp. 127–131. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 138. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 150. ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 570–571. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 572. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 5. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 8. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 3. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 564. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 35. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2008), p. 101. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 565. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2009), p. 37. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2008), p. 103. ↩
Swope (2008), p. 104. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), pp. 37–38. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 39. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Lorge (2005), p. 136. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Ray Huang in The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7, states that there were approximately 40,000–50,000 rebels and 200,000 soldiers on the Ming side,129 ↩
Swope (2008), p. 107. ↩
Swope (2008), p. 102. ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 575–576. ↩
The land tax was increased three times between 1618 and 1620 in order to gather funds for the provision of equipment for the troops stationed in Liaodong.139 ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 577–583. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 14. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 583. ↩
Hummel (1943), pp. 885–886. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 584. ↩
Atwell (1988), pp. 591–592. ↩ ↩²
"Dingling Tomb". China Internet Information Center. 12 February 2003. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2026. ↩
"To Dig or Not to Dig: Qianling Mausoleum in the Spotlight Again". Canberra: China Heritage Project, ANU College of Asia & the Pacific (CAP), The Australian National University. 19 October 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2026. ↩
Melvin, Shelia (7 September 2011). "China's Reluctant Emperor". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 23 June 2026. ↩
Mote (2003), p. 727. ↩
Swope (2008), pp. 61–62. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. xi. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2009), p. 16. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), pp. 529–530. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 15. ↩

Simplified Chinese: 朱翊钧; traditional Chinese: 朱翊鈞; pinyin: Zhū Yìjūn ↩
Art name: Yuzhai (Simplified Chinese: 禹斋; traditional Chinese: 禹齋; pinyin: Yǔzhāi)4 ↩
Mote (2003), pp. 724, 727. ↩
Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 367. ↩
Mote (2003), p. 724. ↩
Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. xxi. ↩
Theobald, Ulrich (17 January 2014). "Ming Shenzong 明神宗, the Wanli Emperor 萬曆". ChinaKnowledge.de. Retrieved 15 September 2018. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 514. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Swope (2008), p. 74. ↩
He learned to read at the age of four.11 ↩
Duindam (2016), pp. 64–65. ↩
McMahon (2016), p. 128. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Eunuchs served the Ming emperors not only as guards and servants in the harem but also managed the operations of the entire Forbidden City palace complex. Outside of Beijing, they oversaw the imperial estates, supervised the use of firearms in the army, collected certain taxes and fees, and supervised state workshops. There was no shortage of eunuchs, but rather an excess: although voluntary castration was prohibited, the harsh living conditions of peasants led them to break the law and undergo castration in hopes of a better life in imperial service. In the early 16th century, eunuchs flocked to Beijing to seek employment from the emperor. In 1572, the Wanli Emperor accepted 3250 eunuchs into service; in 1578, 3570; in 1588, over 2000; and in 1601, 4500 (two-thirds for himself and the rest divided among princes of the imperial family). By 1620, over 20,000 castrated men had gathered in Beijing seeking employment; when rejected, they responded by inciting street riots.14 ↩
McMahon (2016), p. 127. ↩
Zheng (2005), pp. 18–19. ↩
In 1958, Chinese archaeologists opened and explored the Wanli Emperor's burial complex. Upon analyzing the bones, it was discovered that they contained a significant amount of morphine, indicating frequent consumption of opium.16 ↩
Huang (1988), p. 515. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Huang (1988), pp. 521–522. ↩
"Enrich the country and strengthen the army", or in Chinese, Fuguo qiang bing (富國強兵), is a phrase from the Zhan Guo Ce that summarizes the (legalist) policy of Shang Yang. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 23. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2008), p. 73. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 523. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 525. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Huang (1988), p. 526. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), pp. 527–528. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 524. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 522. ↩
Swope (2008), p. 72. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 527. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 537. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 528. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 24. ↩ ↩²
Pang (2015), pp. 26–28. ↩
After Feng Bao, in the late 1580s, Zhang Cheng (張誠) rose to a prominent position among the imperial eunuchs. He first led the Directorate of Ceremonial and then, from 1590, the Eastern Depot (secret service), but in 1596, he fell from power and was transferred to the Hongwu Emperor's tomb in Nanjing. The Emperor also confiscated his property and that of his relatives. Following this, Chen Ju (陳矩; 1539–1607), one of the most capable and respected Ming eunuchs, took over the eunuch offices. He was known for his caution, carefulness, and strong sense of duty.33 ↩
Xuyan, 虛言. ↩
Swope (2008), p. 75. ↩
Luk (2016), pp. 70–77. ↩
Zhao (2002), pp. 135–136. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), pp. 528–529. ↩ ↩²
Zhao (2002), pp. 115–116. ↩
Zhao (2002), pp. 143–145. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 529. ↩
In an attempt to avoid this fate, Li Tingji declined the appointment of senior grand secretary, citing illness. He retreated to a desolate temple and persisted in his refusal to hold office for three years and nine months before the Emperor finally signed his retirement in 1613.40 ↩
Miller (2009), p. 28. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 516. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶
Huang (1988), p. 517. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 553. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 554. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2008), p. 82. ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 552–553. ↩
The 180 km long Jia Canal was a major construction project, running parallel to the Grand Canal further east near Xuzhou. Its construction began in 1593 and faced numerous challenges, such as unexpectedly high demand for stone and a shortage of funds.48 It was not until 1603 that work picked up. The canal was finally opened in 1609.44 ↩
The emperors did not write their official correspondence with ink, as was customary, but with red vermilion paste. ↩
Jang (2008), p. 138. ↩
Brook (2010), p. 101. ↩ ↩²
McMahon (2016), p. 130. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
In the Ming dynasty, imperial succession followed the principle of primogeniture. According to the Ancestral Instructions of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the dynasty, the throne was to be inherited by the eldest son born to the emperor and empress, or by his direct heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. Sons born to concubines were excluded from succession.52 ↩
Duindam (2016), pp. 63–64. ↩
Brook (2010), p. 102. ↩ ↩²
McMahon (2016), pp. 131–132. ↩
Dardess (2002), p. 9. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 550. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 517; 550. ↩
Dardess (2002), p. 10. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 555. ↩ ↩²
This was the first meeting between the Emperor and the officials of the "outer court" since 1602.60 At that time, the Emperor fell seriously ill, and in anticipation of his death, he summoned the grand secretaries and ministers. He ordered the drafting of an edict to abolish the mining tax, cancel the contracts for state textile factories in Suzhou and Hangzhou, and porcelain factories in Jiangxi, as well as the dismissal of eunuchs overseeing them and the release of officials imprisoned for criticizing the Emperor. The following day, the Emperor's condition improved, and he withdrew the edict that had already been drafted. This sparked a wave of criticism from many officials towards Senior Grand Secretary Shen Yiguan, for not officially announcing the edict regardless of the Emperor's change of heart.61 ↩
Dardess (2002), p. 15. ↩
Miller (2009), p. 75. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 530. ↩ ↩²
Miller (2009), p. 78. ↩ ↩²
Miller (2009), p. 79. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 531. ↩
Miller (2009), p. 80. ↩
Von Glahn (1996), pp. 114–115. ↩
Miller (2009), p. 93. ↩
Miller (2009), p. 92. ↩
Miller (2009), pp. 93–94. ↩
Wei (2020), p. 94. ↩
Wei (2020), p. 96. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Wei (2020), p. 95. ↩ ↩²
Wei (2020), p. 97. ↩ ↩²
Wei (2020), p. 98. ↩ ↩²
Wei (2020), p. 99. ↩
"Donglin". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 February 2010. ↩
Cheng (2006), p. 522. ↩ ↩²
Elman (1989), p. 393. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), p. 540. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 532. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 533. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 535. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 534. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 544. ↩ ↩²
One example of political issues that the supporters of the Donglin movement focused on was the case of Zhu Huakui, Prince of Chu. His father, Zhu Yingxian, Prince Gong of Chu, died in 1571, and Zhu Huakui, who was born in the same year, was confirmed as the Prince of Chu by the Emperor in 1580. In 1603, thirty members of the imperial family petitioned the Emperor, declaring Zhu Huakui illegitimate and claiming that his alleged father was impotent. They requested that the Emperor strip him of his title. The Donglin supporters successfully pushed for an official investigation involving dozens of officials. The Emperor eventually closed the investigation, declaring the prince legitimate, but the case continued as officials from both sides accused each other of bribery and dishonesty. The Emperor distanced himself from their disputes and did not respond to the accusations.88 ↩
Huang (1988), p. 536. ↩
Fang (2014), pp. 46–47. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 538. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 539. ↩
Zhao Nanxing (趙南星) and, later, Gu Xiancheng were dismissed from their official positions, while Gao Panlong was transferred to the far southern province of Guangdong.93 ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 539–540. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 541. ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 541–542. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 543. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 28. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶
Huang (1988), p. 566. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 34. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Huang (1988), pp. 566–567. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2009), p. 27. ↩
Swope (2008), p. 80. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 82. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 30. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 29. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 31. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 32. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 33. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2008), p. 88. ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 567–572. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Swope (2009), p. 11. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 6. ↩
Swope (2009), p. xiii. ↩
Swope (2009), pp. 123–125. ↩
Swope (2009), pp. 127–131. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 138. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 150. ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 570–571. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 572. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 5. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 8. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 3. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 564. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 35. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2008), p. 101. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 565. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2009), p. 37. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2008), p. 103. ↩
Swope (2008), p. 104. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), pp. 37–38. ↩
Swope (2009), p. 39. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Lorge (2005), p. 136. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Ray Huang in The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7, states that there were approximately 40,000–50,000 rebels and 200,000 soldiers on the Ming side,129 ↩
Swope (2008), p. 107. ↩
Swope (2008), p. 102. ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 575–576. ↩
The land tax was increased three times between 1618 and 1620 in order to gather funds for the provision of equipment for the troops stationed in Liaodong.139 ↩
Huang (1988), pp. 577–583. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 14. ↩ ↩²
Huang (1988), p. 583. ↩
Hummel (1943), pp. 885–886. ↩
Huang (1988), p. 584. ↩
Atwell (1988), pp. 591–592. ↩ ↩²
"Dingling Tomb". China Internet Information Center. 12 February 2003. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2026. ↩
"To Dig or Not to Dig: Qianling Mausoleum in the Spotlight Again". Canberra: China Heritage Project, ANU College of Asia & the Pacific (CAP), The Australian National University. 19 October 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2026. ↩
Melvin, Shelia (7 September 2011). "China's Reluctant Emperor". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 23 June 2026. ↩
Mote (2003), p. 727. ↩
Swope (2008), pp. 61–62. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. xi. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Swope (2009), p. 16. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Huang (1988), pp. 529–530. ↩ ↩²
Swope (2009), p. 15. ↩

Wanli Emperor

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Early life and character

Early reign: Zhang Juzheng's leadership (1572–1582)

Later reign (1582–1620)

Early years after Zhang Juzheng (1582–1596)

Succession dispute (1586–1614)

Mine tax crisis (1596–1606)

Reforms in the selection and evaluation of officials

Donglin movement and factional struggles (1606–1620)

Military campaigns

Rebellion in Ningxia

Imjin War

Yang Yinglong rebellion

Rise of the Jurchens

Death

Assessment

References

Works cited

Further reading

Notes

Footnotes

Sub-pages

Nearby events

Early life and character

Early reign: Zhang Juzheng's leadership (1572–1582)

Later reign (1582–1620)

Early years after Zhang Juzheng (1582–1596)

Succession dispute (1586–1614)

Mine tax crisis (1596–1606)

Reforms in the selection and evaluation of officials

Donglin movement and factional struggles (1606–1620)

Military campaigns

Rebellion in Ningxia

Imjin War

Yang Yinglong rebellion

Rise of the Jurchens

Death

Assessment

References

Works cited

Further reading

Notes

Footnotes

Sub-pages

Other languages

Nearby events

Opinions 0