The Taichang Emperor (28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620), personal name Zhu Changluo, was the 15th emperor of the Ming dynasty of China. He was the eldest son of the Wanli Emperor and succeeded his father as emperor in 1620.
Born~Died Aug 28, 1582 ~ Sep 26, 1620Last edited Oct 15, 2026, 2:25 PM
The Taichang Emperor (28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620), personal name Zhu Changluo,1 was the 15th emperor of the Ming dynasty of China. He was the eldest son of the Wanli Emperor and succeeded his father as emperor in 1620. His reign came to an abrupt end less than one month after his enthronement when he was found dead one morning in the palace following a bout of diarrhea. His reign was the shortest in Ming history.
Zhu Changluo was born during the tenth year of the Wanli Emperor's reign. His mother, Lady Wang, was a servant of the Emperor's mother. Lady Wang was promoted, but did not gain the favor of the Wanli Emperor, and the Emperor ignored their son. Instead, he favored another concubine, Lady Zheng, and her son, Zhu Changxun. The Emperor intended to appoint Zhu Changxun as heir to the throne, but this choice faced strong opposition from the ministers. Due to the stubbornness of both sides, the matter remained at a standstill for many years. Under pressure from his mother and officials, the Emperor formally appointed the nineteen-year-old Zhu Changluo as heir in 1601, but schemes against the heir persisted at court. This tension culminated in a serious incident in 1615 that threatened the heir's safety and raised suspicions about the involvement of figures close to Lady Zheng.
The Wanli Emperor died on 18 August 1620, and Zhu Changluo officially ascended the throne as the Taichang Emperor on 28 August. However, just a few days after his coronation, he fell ill and died on 26 September, despite attempts at treatment. The Taichang Emperor's eldest son, Zhu Youjiao, was then enthroned as the Tianqi Emperor. The death of the relatively young emperor sparked suspicion, speculation, and recrimination among different court factions.
Early life
Zhu Changluo, the future Taichang Emperor, was born on 28 August 15822 in the imperial palace in Beijing as the first son of the Wanli Emperor, the 14th emperor of China's Ming dynasty. His mother, , was a servant of , the Emperor's mother. Although the Wanli Emperor initially wanted nothing to do with the child, the Empress Dowager convinced him to acknowledge paternity by presenting records of his visits. She also pushed for Lady Wang's promotion to with the title "Consort Gong" (恭妃). The Emperor's interest in Lady Wang quickly faded as he became infatuated with another concubine, , who bore him another son, (1586–1641).
This page is based on “Taichang Emperor” from English Wikipedia, (r1380270450) CC BY-SA 4.0 used under the license. The original authors are listed in its page history.
In 1586, the question of succession arose when the Emperor promoted Lady Zheng to the rank of "Imperial Noble Consort" (Huang Guifei),45 placing her just below the Empress and above his other concubines, including Lady Wang. He preferred Zhu Changxun, his third son, to succeed him rather than Zhu Changluo. This caused a divide among officials, with some advocating for the rights of the first son based on legal primogeniture, while others supported Lady Zheng and her son.4 Widespread support for the eldest son led the Emperor to delay making a decision,4 stating that he was waiting for a son from the Empress.67 A request was made to appoint Zhu Changluo as heir to the throne at the age of eight so that his education could officially begin. The Emperor, however, argued that princes were traditionally taught by court eunuchs.8
In 1589, the Emperor agreed to have Zhu Changluo installed as his successor. Lady Zheng opposed this decision, causing considerable controversy. Two years later, the circulation of a pamphlet in Beijing accusing her of conspiring with senior officials against the Emperor's eldest son led to arrests. Despite this, the Emperor tried to portray Lady Zheng in a positive light to the public.5
The failure to name a successor sparked protests from not only opposition-minded officials, but also high dignitaries such as the grand secretaries Shen Shixing (in office 1578–91) and Wang Xijue (in office 1584–91 and 1593–94).4 The Empress9 and Empress Dowager Li also supported the rights of Zhu Changluo,6 but the Wanli Emperor did not appoint him heir to the throne until 1601, after further protests and requests.610 At the same time, the Emperor gave Zhu Changxun the title of Prince of Fu,11 but kept him in Beijing instead of sending him to a distant province as originally planned when he turned eighteen in 1604. This fueled rumors that the question of succession was still open.12 It was not until 1614, after a long series of appeals and protests, that Empress Dowager Li intervened and insisted on sending Zhu Changxun to the provincial seat.61013
Case of the attack with the stick
In late May 1615, the "case of the attack with the stick" (梃擊案) occurred, when a man named Zhang Chai was arrested near Zhu Changluo's palace for carrying a stick. It was later concluded that Zhang, who was mentally unstable,14 had intended to use the stick to settle a personal conflict with two palace eunuchs he had encountered outside the city. Initially, the case was closed and Zhang was executed,15 but prison official Wang Zhicai intervened and pushed for a public investigation involving representatives from the Ministry of Justice. This new version of the case suggested that Zhang Chai was mentally sound and had been manipulated by two eunuchs close to Lady Zheng and her brother. This raised suspicions that their goal was to kill the heir and install Lady Zheng's son in his place.16 The case caused a stir at court and the Wanli Emperor took the unprecedented step of summoning civil and military officials for a meeting. This was the first time the Emperor had met with officials from the "outer court" since 1602.17 He appeared before them with his family, including Zhu Changluo and his sons and daughter, and expressed his disappointment and disbelief that they would doubt his relationship with the heir in whom he trusted and relied upon. Zhu Changluo also confirmed his close relationship with his father and asked for an end to the affair. Despite this, the Emperor ordered the execution of Zhang and the two eunuchs involved in the case,18 but representatives from the Ministry of Justice demanded further investigation and the grand secretaries brokered a compromise. Zhang Chai was executed the next day, but the suspected eunuchs were to be interrogated. The interrogation did take place, but both eunuchs remained under the supervision of the Emperor's eunuchs. On the fifth day after the Emperor's speech, the officials were informed that the two eunuchs had died under palace confinement.16
Reign
On 18 August 1620, the Wanli Emperor died.19 Zhu Changluo officially took the throne on 28 August 1620. He chose the name Taichang for his era, symbolizing peace and prosperity in contrast to the turmoil of the previous reign.20 Many people in Beijing saw the new monarch as a chance for a fresh start. Since he had not been his father's first choice and the two had never been close, there was hope that he would abandon the Wanli Emperor's policies and implement necessary reforms. On 19 August, 1 million liang (37.3 tons) of silver was sent from the palace treasury to defend the northeastern borders. The situation in Liaodong had become critical, as Nurhaci's Jurchens were launching attacks. Additionally, the mining and commercial taxes that had been introduced in the 1590s were abolished, and the eunuch tax commissioners, who were responsible for collecting these taxes, were recalled from the provinces. All of these actions were carried out in accordance with the last wishes of the deceased emperor. On 21 August, the Taichang Emperor sent another million liang of silver to Liaodong.19
To address long-standing vacancies in the administration, the Taichang Emperor appointed new officials. Many were critics of the previous government who had been dismissed for opposing the Wanli Emperor. Among the first to be summoned were Zuo Yuanbiao (鄒元標; 1551–1624) and Feng Congwu (馮從吾; 1556–1627), both associated with the Donglin movement.2021 Many officials who later became key Donglin figures had supported Zhu Changluo during the dispute over the succession in the 1580s and 1590s.22
Illness and death
Three days after his enthronement, the Taichang Emperor fell ill. On 5 September, his condition worsened, and he summoned the physician Chen Xi. During audiences on 8 and 9 September, he appeared unwell and soon took to his bed. On 13 September, Chen Xi visited him again with a group of officials. The Emperor complained of insomnia and loss of appetite.23 The officials were alarmed. Upon learning that Cui Wensheng (崔文升), the eunuch in charge of the imperial clinic, had administered a laxative to the Emperor, they accused him of incompetence. The officials believed that the Emperor needed strengthening medicine instead. The Emperor refused to accept the accusation, but also stopped taking the laxative.23
Several days passed with the Emperor officiating from his bed, but on 17 September, he became overwhelmed and began to speak of his impending death.22 During a visit from concerned officials, led by Grand Secretary Fang Congzhe, on 25 September, the Emperor requested red pills, which he had heard were being produced by Li Keshao, an assistant director in the Court of State Ceremonial. Li later testified that he believed his pills helped strengthen the Emperor's diseased body. That same day, the imperial guards and eunuchs brought Li to the Emperor, who ordered him to make the pills.23 In the presence of the thirteen officials, Li made the pills using lead, autumn mineral, human milk and cinnabar. All four were recognised tonic drugs in traditional Chinese medicine, and the Emperor's eunuchs provided them to Li. He then gave one pill to the Emperor, who felt relieved and grew hungry, requesting a second. Li, however, refused, saying that one was sufficient and two would be excessive. The Emperor then sent Li and the officials home after midnight. The following morning at dawn, the eunuchs announced that the Emperor had died.24 Some members of the Donglin movement accused Li Keshao and Fang Congzhe of poisoning the Emperor, while others among the thirteen officials present took a more cautious approach, attempting to absolve themselves of any negligence.24 The controversy surrounding the red pills—whether they caused the Emperor's death intentionally or unintentionally, and became known as the Red Pill Case (紅丸案)—sparked heated debates and accusations over the next few years.2224
After the Taichang Emperor's death, a power struggle emerged over the succession of his fourteen-year-old son, Zhu Youjiao. Lady Li, the Emperor's favored concubine, clashed with the ministers and grand secretaries for control. Despite resistance from Lady Li and her eunuchs, a eunuch loyal to the officials ultimately handed the boy over to them, and Lady Li was subsequently banished to another residence within the palace.2526 Zhu Youjiao officially ascended to the throne as the Tianqi Emperor on 1 October 1620.27 The Taichang Emperor's fifth son, Zhu Youjian, later ascended the throne and reigned as the Chongzhen Emperor from 1627 to 1644.28
Atwell, William (1988). "The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644". In Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 585–640. ISBN 0521243327.
Brook, Timothy (2010). The troubled empire: China in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04602-3.
Duindam, Jeroen (2016). Dynasties: A Global History of Power, 1300-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107637580.
Dardess, John W (2002). Blood and History in China: The Donglin Faction and Its Repression, 1620-1627. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824825164.
Fu, Weilin. Mingshu 明書 [Book of the Ming dynasty] (in Literary Chinese).
Huang, Ray (1988). "The Lung-ch'ing and Wan-li reigns, 1567—1620". In Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 511–584. ISBN 0521243327.
Huang, Ray (1997). China: a macro history. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 1-56324-730-5.
History Office (1623). Guangzong Shilu 光宗實錄 [Veritable Records of Guangzong] (in Literary Chinese).
History Office (1628). Xizong Shilu 熹宗實錄 [Veritable Records of Xizong] (in Literary Chinese).
History Office (1630). Shenzong Shilu 神宗實錄 [Veritable Records of Shenzong] (in Literary Chinese).
Lin, Yanqing (2014). "Empress Dowager of Ming". In Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Wiles, Sue (eds.). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women, Volume II: Tang Through Ming 618–1644. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 9780765643148.
McMahon, Keith (2016). Celestial Women: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Song to Qing. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781442255029.
In the Ming dynasty, imperial succession followed the principle of primogeniture. According to the Ancestral Instructions of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the dynasty, the throne was to be inherited by the eldest son born to the emperor and empress, or by his direct heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. Sons born to concubines were excluded from succession.10↩
The movement comprised two distinct groups. The first group consisted of scholars and officials who were affiliated with the Donglin Academy. Their goal was to bring about societal improvement and better governance through moral reform. The second group was made up of officials who were embroiled in political disputes and were focused on restoring the integrity of the state service. While they were often associated with the academy, their main role was that of political activists.3↩
The Taichang Emperor (28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620), personal name Zhu Changluo,1 was the 15th emperor of the Ming dynasty of China. He was the eldest son of the Wanli Emperor and succeeded his father as emperor in 1620. His reign came to an abrupt end less than one month after his enthronement when he was found dead one morning in the palace following a bout of diarrhea. His reign was the shortest in Ming history.
Zhu Changluo was born during the tenth year of the Wanli Emperor's reign. His mother, Lady Wang, was a servant of the Emperor's mother. Lady Wang was promoted, but did not gain the favor of the Wanli Emperor, and the Emperor ignored their son. Instead, he favored another concubine, Lady Zheng, and her son, Zhu Changxun. The Emperor intended to appoint Zhu Changxun as heir to the throne, but this choice faced strong opposition from the ministers. Due to the stubbornness of both sides, the matter remained at a standstill for many years. Under pressure from his mother and officials, the Emperor formally appointed the nineteen-year-old Zhu Changluo as heir in 1601, but schemes against the heir persisted at court. This tension culminated in a serious incident in 1615 that threatened the heir's safety and raised suspicions about the involvement of figures close to Lady Zheng.
The Wanli Emperor died on 18 August 1620, and Zhu Changluo officially ascended the throne as the Taichang Emperor on 28 August. However, just a few days after his coronation, he fell ill and died on 26 September, despite attempts at treatment. The Taichang Emperor's eldest son, Zhu Youjiao, was then enthroned as the Tianqi Emperor. The death of the relatively young emperor sparked suspicion, speculation, and recrimination among different court factions.
Early life
Zhu Changluo, the future Taichang Emperor, was born on 28 August 15822 in the imperial palace in Beijing as the first son of the Wanli Emperor, the 14th emperor of China's . His mother, , was a servant of , the Emperor's mother. Although the Wanli Emperor initially wanted nothing to do with the child, the Empress Dowager convinced him to acknowledge paternity by presenting records of his visits. She also pushed for Lady Wang's promotion to with the title "Consort Gong" (恭妃). The Emperor's interest in Lady Wang quickly faded as he became infatuated with another concubine, , who bore him another son, (1586–1641).
In 1586, the question of succession arose when the Emperor promoted Lady Zheng to the rank of "Imperial Noble Consort" (Huang Guifei),45 placing her just below the Empress and above his other concubines, including Lady Wang. He preferred Zhu Changxun, his third son, to succeed him rather than Zhu Changluo. This caused a divide among officials, with some advocating for the rights of the first son based on legal primogeniture, while others supported Lady Zheng and her son.4 Widespread support for the eldest son led the Emperor to delay making a decision,4 stating that he was waiting for a son from the Empress.67 A request was made to appoint Zhu Changluo as heir to the throne at the age of eight so that his education could officially begin. The Emperor, however, argued that princes were traditionally taught by court eunuchs.8
In 1589, the Emperor agreed to have Zhu Changluo installed as his successor. Lady Zheng opposed this decision, causing considerable controversy. Two years later, the circulation of a pamphlet in Beijing accusing her of conspiring with senior officials against the Emperor's eldest son led to arrests. Despite this, the Emperor tried to portray Lady Zheng in a positive light to the public.5
The failure to name a successor sparked protests from not only opposition-minded officials, but also high dignitaries such as the grand secretaries Shen Shixing (in office 1578–91) and Wang Xijue (in office 1584–91 and 1593–94).4 The Empress9 and Empress Dowager Li also supported the rights of Zhu Changluo,6 but the Wanli Emperor did not appoint him heir to the throne until 1601, after further protests and requests.610 At the same time, the Emperor gave Zhu Changxun the title of Prince of Fu,11 but kept him in Beijing instead of sending him to a distant province as originally planned when he turned eighteen in 1604. This fueled rumors that the question of succession was still open.12 It was not until 1614, after a long series of appeals and protests, that Empress Dowager Li intervened and insisted on sending Zhu Changxun to the provincial seat.61013
Case of the attack with the stick
In late May 1615, the "case of the attack with the stick" (梃擊案) occurred, when a man named Zhang Chai was arrested near Zhu Changluo's palace for carrying a stick. It was later concluded that Zhang, who was mentally unstable,14 had intended to use the stick to settle a personal conflict with two palace eunuchs he had encountered outside the city. Initially, the case was closed and Zhang was executed,15 but prison official Wang Zhicai intervened and pushed for a public investigation involving representatives from the Ministry of Justice. This new version of the case suggested that Zhang Chai was mentally sound and had been manipulated by two eunuchs close to Lady Zheng and her brother. This raised suspicions that their goal was to kill the heir and install Lady Zheng's son in his place.16 The case caused a stir at court and the Wanli Emperor took the unprecedented step of summoning civil and military officials for a meeting. This was the first time the Emperor had met with officials from the "outer court" since 1602.17 He appeared before them with his family, including Zhu Changluo and his sons and daughter, and expressed his disappointment and disbelief that they would doubt his relationship with the heir in whom he trusted and relied upon. Zhu Changluo also confirmed his close relationship with his father and asked for an end to the affair. Despite this, the Emperor ordered the execution of Zhang and the two eunuchs involved in the case,18 but representatives from the Ministry of Justice demanded further investigation and the grand secretaries brokered a compromise. Zhang Chai was executed the next day, but the suspected eunuchs were to be interrogated. The interrogation did take place, but both eunuchs remained under the supervision of the Emperor's eunuchs. On the fifth day after the Emperor's speech, the officials were informed that the two eunuchs had died under palace confinement.16
Reign
On 18 August 1620, the Wanli Emperor died.19 Zhu Changluo officially took the throne on 28 August 1620. He chose the name Taichang for his era, symbolizing peace and prosperity in contrast to the turmoil of the previous reign.20 Many people in Beijing saw the new monarch as a chance for a fresh start. Since he had not been his father's first choice and the two had never been close, there was hope that he would abandon the Wanli Emperor's policies and implement necessary reforms. On 19 August, 1 million liang (37.3 tons) of silver was sent from the palace treasury to defend the northeastern borders. The situation in Liaodong had become critical, as Nurhaci's Jurchens were launching attacks. Additionally, the mining and commercial taxes that had been introduced in the 1590s were abolished, and the eunuch tax commissioners, who were responsible for collecting these taxes, were recalled from the provinces. All of these actions were carried out in accordance with the last wishes of the deceased emperor. On 21 August, the Taichang Emperor sent another million liang of silver to Liaodong.19
To address long-standing vacancies in the administration, the Taichang Emperor appointed new officials. Many were critics of the previous government who had been dismissed for opposing the Wanli Emperor. Among the first to be summoned were Zuo Yuanbiao (鄒元標; 1551–1624) and Feng Congwu (馮從吾; 1556–1627), both associated with the Donglin movement.2021 Many officials who later became key Donglin figures had supported Zhu Changluo during the dispute over the succession in the 1580s and 1590s.22
Illness and death
Three days after his enthronement, the Taichang Emperor fell ill. On 5 September, his condition worsened, and he summoned the physician Chen Xi. During audiences on 8 and 9 September, he appeared unwell and soon took to his bed. On 13 September, Chen Xi visited him again with a group of officials. The Emperor complained of insomnia and loss of appetite.23 The officials were alarmed. Upon learning that Cui Wensheng (崔文升), the eunuch in charge of the imperial clinic, had administered a laxative to the Emperor, they accused him of incompetence. The officials believed that the Emperor needed strengthening medicine instead. The Emperor refused to accept the accusation, but also stopped taking the laxative.23
Several days passed with the Emperor officiating from his bed, but on 17 September, he became overwhelmed and began to speak of his impending death.22 During a visit from concerned officials, led by Grand Secretary Fang Congzhe, on 25 September, the Emperor requested red pills, which he had heard were being produced by Li Keshao, an assistant director in the Court of State Ceremonial. Li later testified that he believed his pills helped strengthen the Emperor's diseased body. That same day, the imperial guards and eunuchs brought Li to the Emperor, who ordered him to make the pills.23 In the presence of the thirteen officials, Li made the pills using lead, autumn mineral, human milk and cinnabar. All four were recognised tonic drugs in traditional Chinese medicine, and the Emperor's eunuchs provided them to Li. He then gave one pill to the Emperor, who felt relieved and grew hungry, requesting a second. Li, however, refused, saying that one was sufficient and two would be excessive. The Emperor then sent Li and the officials home after midnight. The following morning at dawn, the eunuchs announced that the Emperor had died.24 Some members of the Donglin movement accused Li Keshao and Fang Congzhe of poisoning the Emperor, while others among the thirteen officials present took a more cautious approach, attempting to absolve themselves of any negligence.24 The controversy surrounding the red pills—whether they caused the Emperor's death intentionally or unintentionally, and became known as the Red Pill Case (紅丸案)—sparked heated debates and accusations over the next few years.2224
After the Taichang Emperor's death, a power struggle emerged over the succession of his fourteen-year-old son, Zhu Youjiao. Lady Li, the Emperor's favored concubine, clashed with the ministers and grand secretaries for control. Despite resistance from Lady Li and her eunuchs, a eunuch loyal to the officials ultimately handed the boy over to them, and Lady Li was subsequently banished to another residence within the palace.2526 Zhu Youjiao officially ascended to the throne as the Tianqi Emperor on 1 October 1620.27 The Taichang Emperor's fifth son, Zhu Youjian, later ascended the throne and reigned as the Chongzhen Emperor from 1627 to 1644.28
Atwell, William (1988). "The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644". In Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 585–640. ISBN 0521243327.
Brook, Timothy (2010). The troubled empire: China in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04602-3.
Duindam, Jeroen (2016). Dynasties: A Global History of Power, 1300-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107637580.
Dardess, John W (2002). Blood and History in China: The Donglin Faction and Its Repression, 1620-1627. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824825164.
Fu, Weilin. Mingshu 明書 [Book of the Ming dynasty] (in Literary Chinese).
Huang, Ray (1988). "The Lung-ch'ing and Wan-li reigns, 1567—1620". In Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 511–584. ISBN 0521243327.
Huang, Ray (1997). China: a macro history. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 1-56324-730-5.
History Office (1623). Guangzong Shilu 光宗實錄 [Veritable Records of Guangzong] (in Literary Chinese).
History Office (1628). Xizong Shilu 熹宗實錄 [Veritable Records of Xizong] (in Literary Chinese).
History Office (1630). Shenzong Shilu 神宗實錄 [Veritable Records of Shenzong] (in Literary Chinese).
Lin, Yanqing (2014). "Empress Dowager of Ming". In Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Wiles, Sue (eds.). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women, Volume II: Tang Through Ming 618–1644. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 9780765643148.
McMahon, Keith (2016). Celestial Women: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Song to Qing. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781442255029.
In the Ming dynasty, imperial succession followed the principle of primogeniture. According to the Ancestral Instructions of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the dynasty, the throne was to be inherited by the eldest son born to the emperor and empress, or by his direct heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. Sons born to concubines were excluded from succession.10↩
The movement comprised two distinct groups. The first group consisted of scholars and officials who were affiliated with the Donglin Academy. Their goal was to bring about societal improvement and better governance through moral reform. The second group was made up of officials who were embroiled in political disputes and were focused on restoring the integrity of the state service. While they were often associated with the academy, their main role was that of political activists.3↩