Dangun Joseon (檀君朝鮮) is the state traditionally regarded as the first state of the Korean people, and it was first mentioned in the [[Samguk yusa]]. In general, it refers to the first period of [[Gojoseon]]'s history, divided by dynasty or ruler, when it was ruled by [[Dangun]]. According to traditi
Founded date unknownLast edited Oct 15, 2026, 2:51 PM
Dangun Joseon (檀君朝鮮) is the state traditionally regarded as the first state of the Korean people, and it was first mentioned in the Samguk yusa. In general, it refers to the first period of Gojoseon's history, divided by dynasty or ruler, when it was ruled by Dangun. According to tradition, Dangun founded the state and ruled for more than 1,000 years. During the Joseon period, it was also sometimes called Jeon Joseon (前朝鮮).
History
Before modern historiography was established, the history of Gojoseon was divided into three periods according to the names of its rulers at the time: Dangun Joseon, Gija Joseon, and Wiman Joseon. Dangun Joseon is said to have been founded by Dangun in the Mujin year (2333 BCE) at Asadal or Pyongyang. Dangun is said to have ruled Dangun Joseon for about 1,000 years before handing the throne to Gija in the Gimyo year (1122 BCE) and becoming the mountain spirit of Asadal. Another account holds that he left the throne in 1286 BCE, 164 years before Gija's arrival. Modern Korean historiography does not recognize Gija Joseon, so the claim that Dangun Joseon ended around the 11th century BCE is also not accepted; instead, the history up to 194 BCE, when Wiman Joseon was established, is regarded in its entirety as the history of Dangun Joseon and Gojoseon.
The early territory of Dangun Joseon is the subject of two competing views: one holds that it was centered on the Pyongyang area in northern the Korean Peninsula,1 while the other holds that it was centered on the Liaodong area and included the Liaodong Peninsula and northern the Korean Peninsula (Pyongan Province and Hwanghae Province).2 In addition, some independent historians argue, on the basis of the "" and other claims, that the territory of Dangun Joseon (Gojoseon) extended over the area west of the Liao River. The territory inferred from the and , thought to be relics of Dangun Joseon (Gojoseon), is northern and northern the . Although it is generally accepted that these two types of relics belong to Dangun Joseon, most historians agree that it is difficult to conclude that the sites where both were excavated were entirely within the territory of Dangun Joseon.
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The oldest extant Chinese record mentioning Joseon is the text Guanzi, which dates from around the 7th century BCE.4 In 323 BCE, there was a diplomatic conflict with Yan of the Warring States period in China. In the early 3rd century BCE, after an attack by Yan, Joseon lost more than 2,000 li of territory and took the Manbeon River as its border. Around this time, there is an argument that the center of Gojoseon moved from Liaodong to Pyongyang.5 According to the Weiliie (魏略), in the late 2nd century BCE, when Qin Shi Huang unified China, the king of Joseon, Bu (否), nominally submitted to the Qin dynasty. Afterward, during the chaotic period at the end of the Qin, Joseon accepted many Chinese refugees; in particular, in 195 BCE it accepted the defection of Wiman and entrusted him with defending the western frontier. In 194 BCE, Wiman drove out King Jun and usurped the throne, establishing Wiman Joseon.
Historical evaluation
During the Goryeo and Joseon periods, Dangun Joseon was regarded as important as the founding ancestor of the state. Dangun and Gija, the rulers of Dangun Joseon and Gija Joseon, were worshipped as national ancestors (國祖), and Dangun Joseon was emphasized as a source of pride, showing that Joseon's history was as long as China's.
However, because it was an ancient state from a period with insufficient written records, the records related to Dangun Joseon are very sketchy, and its exact chronology is not known. Moreover, owing to the subservience to the sinocentric ideology (中華思想), Gija, who was said to have come from the Shang and Zhou of China, was preferred as the founding ancestor. Consequently, many historical works compiled individually by the scholar-official class mostly do not record history from Dangun Joseon, but instead describe it starting from Gija Joseon or the Three Kingdoms. Dangun Joseon was treated either as an appendix to the records of Gija Joseon or as a separate record.
During the Japanese colonial period, Dangun Joseon, together with Gojoseon, had its historical reality denied by colonial scholars. The Japanese claimed that the Dangun myth and Dangun Joseon were merely myths without historicity and could not be accepted. Also, based on the "heteronomy theory" (他律性論), which was part of colonial historiography, they denied Dangun Joseon and argued that Chinese colonial rule continued through Gija Joseon, Wiman Joseon, and the Four Commanderies of Han. Nevertheless, philological research on the Dangun myth and Dangun Joseon was also carried out in parallel. In opposition to this Japanese colonial historiography, Park Eun-sik, Sin Chae-ho, and others advocated national historiography (民族史學) and emphasized Dangun Joseon as the state that was the origin of the nation. They also regarded not only the Korean people but also Manchuria, Mongolia, and others as successor states or peoples of Dangun Joseon.6
After liberation, the historical circles of the Republic of Korea have analyzed the history and social conditions of Gojoseon based on the Dangun myth and Dangun Joseon. It is common to not recognize the dynasty of Dangun Joseon, along with Gija Joseon, and instead to divide the history into two periods: Gojoseon and Wiman Joseon. Although various views have been presented regarding the founding date of Gojoseon, the period from the 23rd century BCE to the 11th century BCE, which corresponds to the Dangun Joseon period, is generally regarded as a time when the state of Gojoseon had not yet been formed. Meanwhile, Dangun is understood to refer to the political and religious rulers of various villages or tribal states distributed across northern Liaoning and the northwestern Korean Peninsula.7
Until the 1990s, the historical circles of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, based on socialist historiography, did not recognize the reality of either Dangun Joseon or Gija Joseon and understood the state as Gojoseon. They also placed the territory of Gojoseon mainly in Liaoning.8 However, after the 1990s they changed their position: they excavated the Tomb of Dangun and other sites, understood the Dangun myth as historical reality, and emphasized the Pyongyang area as the center of Gojoseon.9 The historical circles of the Republic of Korea regard this change in North Korea's position as the result of political factors that led to the emphasis on Juche as North Korea's view of history.10
Even in the Republic of Korea after the 2000s, in the past two or three years, comb-pattern pottery with applied-band decoration, apparently an early Bronze Age artifact, has been excavated in places such as Jeongseon and Chuncheon together with comb-pattern pottery apparently used around 2000 BCE. In response to academic arguments that the Bronze Age should be pushed back, since the founding period of Gojoseon nearly coincides with the period when bronze was introduced, on 23 February 2007 the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development of the Republic of Korea issued guidelines to revise the phrase "it is said that Dangun Wanggeom founded Gojoseon" to the more explicit "Dangun Wanggeom founded Gojoseon."
Textual records
The Dangun (檀君) of Joseon was the first king to receive the Mandate of Heaven in the East, and Gija (箕子) was the first king to bring about civilization; I request that the Pyeongyang prefecture (平壤府) perform sacrifices to them at the appropriate times.
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Taejo vol. 1, year 1 (1392, Imsin / Ming Hongwu 25), 11th day of the 8th month, 2nd article
Our East's Dangun is the founder, and he descended from heaven; he was not a state enfeoffed by the Son of Heaven. Dangun's descent took place in the Mujin year (戊辰) of Tang Yao (Chinese: Yao), and to the present day it has been more than 3,000 years. (omitted) Some say that Dangun founded a state beyond the seas, that it was crude and had few writings, and that it did not communicate with China, so it never observed the etiquette of ruler and subject. Upon reaching the reign of King Wu of Zhou, [Gija], the Grand Preceptor (太師) of Yin (Shang), was not made a minister, but was enfeoffed in Joseon; from this one can understand his intent.
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Taejong vol. 31, year 16 (1416, Byeongsin / Ming Yongle 14), 1st day of the 6th month, 2nd article
Yu Sinul (柳思訥), former Magistrate of the Hanseong Prefecture (判漢城府事), submitted a memorial saying: "I have carefully examined the Sennyeonga (世年歌), and Dangun was the founder of Joseon. (omitted) Examining the Sennyeonga, Dangun first established his capital at Pyongyang, and later at Baekak (白岳). In the 8th year of King Wuding of Yin, the year Eulmi, he entered Asadal Mountain (阿斯達山) and became a spirit. Its song says: 'He enjoyed the state for 1,048 years, and even now his shrine is at Asadal.' How could this have no basis? Moreover, in Goryeo a shrine was built at the foot of Mount Gu (九月山), and its hall and ancestral tablets still remain, agreeing with the Sennyeonga. In my foolish opinion, if we abandon this place (Mount Gu) and build a shrine again elsewhere (Pyongyang), the location would seem to be mistaken. I respectfully ask Your Majesty to decide." He ordered that it be sent down to the Board of Rites.
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Sejong vol. 75, year 18 (1436, Byeongjin / Ming Zhengtong 1), 26th day of the 12th month, 4th article
The Board of Rites requested that, following the precedent of the Dangun shrine in Pyongyang, the ritual text for Dangun at the Samseong Shrine (三聖祠) in Hwanghae Province be written as "Dangun of Jeon Joseon (前朝鮮)" (omitted)
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Sukjong vol. 28, year 21 (1695, Eulhae / Qing Kangxi 34), 6th day of the 6th month, 1st article
He ordered the repair of the old tombs of the former dynasty (前朝: Goryeo) and the tombs of the founding ancestors of Dangun, Gija, Silla, Goguryeo, and Baekje.
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Yeongjo vol. 101, year 39 (1763, Gyemi / Qing Qianlong 28), 22nd day of the 4th month, 4th article
Minister of Rites Sim Su (沈鏽) reported to the king: "The clay tablets of the Samseong Shrine (三聖廟) on Mount Gu in Hwanghae Province have been greatly damaged and should be remade." The king summoned Vice Director of the Academy Seo Myeong-eung (徐命膺) and asked him about the old traces of the Three Sages (三聖). Seo Myeong-eung said: "The Three Sages are Hwanin (桓因), Hwanung (桓雄), and Dangun (檀君), and the Asadal Mountain (阿斯達山) mentioned in history is today's Mount Gu." He then reported their stories in great detail. The king said: "Then Hwanung was Dangun's father, and Hwanin was Dangun's grandfather."
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Yeongjo vol. 106, year 41 (1765, Eului / Qing Qianlong 30), 8th day of the 12th month, 1st article
The Dongguk tonggam oegi (東國通鑑外紀) records: "In the East there was at first no ruler. A divine man descended beneath a sandalwood tree (檀木), and the people of the state set him up as king. This was Dangun, and the name of the state was Joseon; it was the Mujin year of Tang Yao (戊辰歲, 2333 BCE). He first established his capital at Pyongyang, and later moved the capital to Baekak. In the 8th year of King Wuding of Shang (商), the year Eulmi (1317 BCE), he entered Asadal Mountain and became a spirit." (Original text: 檀君朝鮮《東國通鑑·外紀》〈徐居正·崔溥 等 共撰〉東方初無君長, 有神人降于檀木下, 國人立爲君, 是爲檀君, 國號朝鮮, 是唐堯戊辰歲也. 初都平壤, 後徙都白岳, 至商.武丁八年乙未, 入阿斯達山爲神)
Other records of Dangun Joseon are found in the Samguk yusa, the Jewang Ungi, and others, and generally the content of the Samguk yusa is known. According to it, he established his capital at Asadal (阿斯達; the sutra calls it Muyeop Mountain (無葉山), also called Baekak; it was in Baekju (白州), or, according to another account, east of Gaeseong (開城). This is the present-day Baekak Palace (白岳宮)), founded a new state, and called its name Joseon (朝鮮); this was in the same period as Yao.
This founding myth, also called the Dangun myth, is important because it provides records of the founding and social conditions of Gojoseon. However, there is no record that describes the history of Dangun Joseon in detail.
Works such as the Gyuwon sahwa, the Dangi gosa, the Hwandan Gogi, and the Budoji, which became known to the public in the early 20th century, describe the history of Gojoseon in detail in the form of historical works. However, most historians judge these to be pseudohistory and do not accept them.
Song Ho-jeong, "KBS bangyeong 'Biref ui wanggook Gojoseon' reul bipanhanda" (Critique of the KBS broadcast "The Secret Kingdom Gojoseon"), Yeoksa Bipyeong, Winter 2000 issue, 2000 ↩
Ri Ji-rin, Gojoseon yeongu, Sahoe Gwahak Chulpansa, 1963 ↩
Jang U-jin, "Daedonggang yuyeok eun inryu ui balsangji ija Joseon saram ui balwongji" (The Daedong River basin is the birthplace of humankind and the origin of the Korean people), Joseon Gogo Yeongu No. 1, 1999 ↩
Yi Gi-dong, "Bukhan eseoui Dangun yeongu wa geu sung-ang undong" (Dangun studies in North Korea and its veneration movement), Hanguksa Simin Gangjwa Vol. 27, 2000 ↩
Sub-pages
Battles, meetings and other parts of this topic can get their own pages.
Dangun Joseon (檀君朝鮮) is the state traditionally regarded as the first state of the Korean people, and it was first mentioned in the Samguk yusa. In general, it refers to the first period of Gojoseon's history, divided by dynasty or ruler, when it was ruled by Dangun. According to tradition, Dangun founded the state and ruled for more than 1,000 years. During the Joseon period, it was also sometimes called Jeon Joseon (前朝鮮).
History
Before modern historiography was established, the history of Gojoseon was divided into three periods according to the names of its rulers at the time: Dangun Joseon, Gija Joseon, and Wiman Joseon. Dangun Joseon is said to have been founded by Dangun in the Mujin year (2333 BCE) at Asadal or Pyongyang. Dangun is said to have ruled Dangun Joseon for about 1,000 years before handing the throne to Gija in the Gimyo year (1122 BCE) and becoming the mountain spirit of Asadal. Another account holds that he left the throne in 1286 BCE, 164 years before Gija's arrival. Modern Korean historiography does not recognize Gija Joseon, so the claim that Dangun Joseon ended around the 11th century BCE is also not accepted; instead, the history up to 194 BCE, when Wiman Joseon was established, is regarded in its entirety as the history of Dangun Joseon and Gojoseon.
The early territory of Dangun Joseon is the subject of two competing views: one holds that it was centered on the Pyongyang area in northern the Korean Peninsula,1 while the other holds that it was centered on the Liaodong area and included the Liaodong Peninsula and northern the Korean Peninsula (Pyongan Province and Hwanghae Province). In addition, some independent historians argue, on the basis of the "" and other claims, that the territory of Dangun Joseon (Gojoseon) extended over the area west of the Liao River. The territory inferred from the and , thought to be relics of Dangun Joseon (Gojoseon), is northern and northern the . Although it is generally accepted that these two types of relics belong to Dangun Joseon, most historians agree that it is difficult to conclude that the sites where both were excavated were entirely within the territory of Dangun Joseon.
The oldest extant Chinese record mentioning Joseon is the text Guanzi, which dates from around the 7th century BCE.4 In 323 BCE, there was a diplomatic conflict with Yan of the Warring States period in China. In the early 3rd century BCE, after an attack by Yan, Joseon lost more than 2,000 li of territory and took the Manbeon River as its border. Around this time, there is an argument that the center of Gojoseon moved from Liaodong to Pyongyang.5 According to the Weiliie (魏略), in the late 2nd century BCE, when Qin Shi Huang unified China, the king of Joseon, Bu (否), nominally submitted to the Qin dynasty. Afterward, during the chaotic period at the end of the Qin, Joseon accepted many Chinese refugees; in particular, in 195 BCE it accepted the defection of Wiman and entrusted him with defending the western frontier. In 194 BCE, Wiman drove out King Jun and usurped the throne, establishing Wiman Joseon.
Historical evaluation
During the Goryeo and Joseon periods, Dangun Joseon was regarded as important as the founding ancestor of the state. Dangun and Gija, the rulers of Dangun Joseon and Gija Joseon, were worshipped as national ancestors (國祖), and Dangun Joseon was emphasized as a source of pride, showing that Joseon's history was as long as China's.
However, because it was an ancient state from a period with insufficient written records, the records related to Dangun Joseon are very sketchy, and its exact chronology is not known. Moreover, owing to the subservience to the sinocentric ideology (中華思想), Gija, who was said to have come from the Shang and Zhou of China, was preferred as the founding ancestor. Consequently, many historical works compiled individually by the scholar-official class mostly do not record history from Dangun Joseon, but instead describe it starting from Gija Joseon or the Three Kingdoms. Dangun Joseon was treated either as an appendix to the records of Gija Joseon or as a separate record.
During the Japanese colonial period, Dangun Joseon, together with Gojoseon, had its historical reality denied by colonial scholars. The Japanese claimed that the Dangun myth and Dangun Joseon were merely myths without historicity and could not be accepted. Also, based on the "heteronomy theory" (他律性論), which was part of colonial historiography, they denied Dangun Joseon and argued that Chinese colonial rule continued through Gija Joseon, Wiman Joseon, and the Four Commanderies of Han. Nevertheless, philological research on the Dangun myth and Dangun Joseon was also carried out in parallel. In opposition to this Japanese colonial historiography, Park Eun-sik, Sin Chae-ho, and others advocated national historiography (民族史學) and emphasized Dangun Joseon as the state that was the origin of the nation. They also regarded not only the Korean people but also Manchuria, Mongolia, and others as successor states or peoples of Dangun Joseon.6
After liberation, the historical circles of the Republic of Korea have analyzed the history and social conditions of Gojoseon based on the Dangun myth and Dangun Joseon. It is common to not recognize the dynasty of Dangun Joseon, along with Gija Joseon, and instead to divide the history into two periods: Gojoseon and Wiman Joseon. Although various views have been presented regarding the founding date of Gojoseon, the period from the 23rd century BCE to the 11th century BCE, which corresponds to the Dangun Joseon period, is generally regarded as a time when the state of Gojoseon had not yet been formed. Meanwhile, Dangun is understood to refer to the political and religious rulers of various villages or tribal states distributed across northern Liaoning and the northwestern Korean Peninsula.7
Until the 1990s, the historical circles of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, based on socialist historiography, did not recognize the reality of either Dangun Joseon or Gija Joseon and understood the state as Gojoseon. They also placed the territory of Gojoseon mainly in Liaoning.8 However, after the 1990s they changed their position: they excavated the Tomb of Dangun and other sites, understood the Dangun myth as historical reality, and emphasized the Pyongyang area as the center of Gojoseon.9 The historical circles of the Republic of Korea regard this change in North Korea's position as the result of political factors that led to the emphasis on Juche as North Korea's view of history.10
Even in the Republic of Korea after the 2000s, in the past two or three years, comb-pattern pottery with applied-band decoration, apparently an early Bronze Age artifact, has been excavated in places such as Jeongseon and Chuncheon together with comb-pattern pottery apparently used around 2000 BCE. In response to academic arguments that the Bronze Age should be pushed back, since the founding period of Gojoseon nearly coincides with the period when bronze was introduced, on 23 February 2007 the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development of the Republic of Korea issued guidelines to revise the phrase "it is said that Dangun Wanggeom founded Gojoseon" to the more explicit "Dangun Wanggeom founded Gojoseon."
Textual records
The Dangun (檀君) of Joseon was the first king to receive the Mandate of Heaven in the East, and Gija (箕子) was the first king to bring about civilization; I request that the Pyeongyang prefecture (平壤府) perform sacrifices to them at the appropriate times.
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Taejo vol. 1, year 1 (1392, Imsin / Ming Hongwu 25), 11th day of the 8th month, 2nd article
Our East's Dangun is the founder, and he descended from heaven; he was not a state enfeoffed by the Son of Heaven. Dangun's descent took place in the Mujin year (戊辰) of Tang Yao (Chinese: Yao), and to the present day it has been more than 3,000 years. (omitted) Some say that Dangun founded a state beyond the seas, that it was crude and had few writings, and that it did not communicate with China, so it never observed the etiquette of ruler and subject. Upon reaching the reign of King Wu of Zhou, [Gija], the Grand Preceptor (太師) of Yin (Shang), was not made a minister, but was enfeoffed in Joseon; from this one can understand his intent.
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Taejong vol. 31, year 16 (1416, Byeongsin / Ming Yongle 14), 1st day of the 6th month, 2nd article
Yu Sinul (柳思訥), former Magistrate of the Hanseong Prefecture (判漢城府事), submitted a memorial saying: "I have carefully examined the Sennyeonga (世年歌), and Dangun was the founder of Joseon. (omitted) Examining the Sennyeonga, Dangun first established his capital at Pyongyang, and later at Baekak (白岳). In the 8th year of King Wuding of Yin, the year Eulmi, he entered Asadal Mountain (阿斯達山) and became a spirit. Its song says: 'He enjoyed the state for 1,048 years, and even now his shrine is at Asadal.' How could this have no basis? Moreover, in Goryeo a shrine was built at the foot of Mount Gu (九月山), and its hall and ancestral tablets still remain, agreeing with the Sennyeonga. In my foolish opinion, if we abandon this place (Mount Gu) and build a shrine again elsewhere (Pyongyang), the location would seem to be mistaken. I respectfully ask Your Majesty to decide." He ordered that it be sent down to the Board of Rites.
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Sejong vol. 75, year 18 (1436, Byeongjin / Ming Zhengtong 1), 26th day of the 12th month, 4th article
The Board of Rites requested that, following the precedent of the Dangun shrine in Pyongyang, the ritual text for Dangun at the Samseong Shrine (三聖祠) in Hwanghae Province be written as "Dangun of Jeon Joseon (前朝鮮)" (omitted)
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Sukjong vol. 28, year 21 (1695, Eulhae / Qing Kangxi 34), 6th day of the 6th month, 1st article
He ordered the repair of the old tombs of the former dynasty (前朝: Goryeo) and the tombs of the founding ancestors of Dangun, Gija, Silla, Goguryeo, and Baekje.
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Yeongjo vol. 101, year 39 (1763, Gyemi / Qing Qianlong 28), 22nd day of the 4th month, 4th article
Minister of Rites Sim Su (沈鏽) reported to the king: "The clay tablets of the Samseong Shrine (三聖廟) on Mount Gu in Hwanghae Province have been greatly damaged and should be remade." The king summoned Vice Director of the Academy Seo Myeong-eung (徐命膺) and asked him about the old traces of the Three Sages (三聖). Seo Myeong-eung said: "The Three Sages are Hwanin (桓因), Hwanung (桓雄), and Dangun (檀君), and the Asadal Mountain (阿斯達山) mentioned in history is today's Mount Gu." He then reported their stories in great detail. The king said: "Then Hwanung was Dangun's father, and Hwanin was Dangun's grandfather."
— Joseon Wangjo Sillok, Yeongjo vol. 106, year 41 (1765, Eului / Qing Qianlong 30), 8th day of the 12th month, 1st article
The Dongguk tonggam oegi (東國通鑑外紀) records: "In the East there was at first no ruler. A divine man descended beneath a sandalwood tree (檀木), and the people of the state set him up as king. This was Dangun, and the name of the state was Joseon; it was the Mujin year of Tang Yao (戊辰歲, 2333 BCE). He first established his capital at Pyongyang, and later moved the capital to Baekak. In the 8th year of King Wuding of Shang (商), the year Eulmi (1317 BCE), he entered Asadal Mountain and became a spirit." (Original text: 檀君朝鮮《東國通鑑·外紀》〈徐居正·崔溥 等 共撰〉東方初無君長, 有神人降于檀木下, 國人立爲君, 是爲檀君, 國號朝鮮, 是唐堯戊辰歲也. 初都平壤, 後徙都白岳, 至商.武丁八年乙未, 入阿斯達山爲神)
Other records of Dangun Joseon are found in the Samguk yusa, the Jewang Ungi, and others, and generally the content of the Samguk yusa is known. According to it, he established his capital at Asadal (阿斯達; the sutra calls it Muyeop Mountain (無葉山), also called Baekak; it was in Baekju (白州), or, according to another account, east of Gaeseong (開城). This is the present-day Baekak Palace (白岳宮)), founded a new state, and called its name Joseon (朝鮮); this was in the same period as Yao.
This founding myth, also called the Dangun myth, is important because it provides records of the founding and social conditions of Gojoseon. However, there is no record that describes the history of Dangun Joseon in detail.
Works such as the Gyuwon sahwa, the Dangi gosa, the Hwandan Gogi, and the Budoji, which became known to the public in the early 20th century, describe the history of Gojoseon in detail in the form of historical works. However, most historians judge these to be pseudohistory and do not accept them.
Song Ho-jeong, "KBS bangyeong 'Biref ui wanggook Gojoseon' reul bipanhanda" (Critique of the KBS broadcast "The Secret Kingdom Gojoseon"), Yeoksa Bipyeong, Winter 2000 issue, 2000 ↩
Ri Ji-rin, Gojoseon yeongu, Sahoe Gwahak Chulpansa, 1963 ↩
Jang U-jin, "Daedonggang yuyeok eun inryu ui balsangji ija Joseon saram ui balwongji" (The Daedong River basin is the birthplace of humankind and the origin of the Korean people), Joseon Gogo Yeongu No. 1, 1999 ↩
Yi Gi-dong, "Bukhan eseoui Dangun yeongu wa geu sung-ang undong" (Dangun studies in North Korea and its veneration movement), Hanguksa Simin Gangjwa Vol. 27, 2000 ↩