**OMON**[^1] is a system of [[Special police|special police]] units within the [[National Guard of Russia]]. It previously operated within the structures of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and Russian [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia)|Ministry of Internal Affairs]] (MVD). Originating as the [[Special forces|special forces]] unit of the Soviet *[[Militsiya|militsiya]]* in 1988, it has played major roles in several armed conflicts during and following the 1991 [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|dissolution of the Soviet Union]].

OMON is much larger and better known than [[SOBR]], another special-police branch of the National Guard of Russia. In modern contexts, OMON serves as a [[Riot police|riot police]] group, or as a [[Gendarmerie|gendarmerie]]\-like [[Paramilitary|paramilitary]] force. OMON units also exist in Belarus, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and other [[Post-Soviet states|post-Soviet states]]. However, some post-Soviet units have changed names and acronyms. Russian speakers commonly refer to OMON officers as ***omonovtsy*** ([[Russian language|Russian]]: омоновцы; singular: omonovyets – [[Russian language|Russian]]: омоновец).

On 5 April 2016, OMON became part of the newly-established National Guard of Russia, ending its years as part of the MVD.[^2] The MVD continues to operate the [[Police of Russia]].[^3]

## History

Special purpose [[Militia|militia]] units were formed on May 5, 1919 in the [[Russian State (1918–1920)|Russian state]] in the structure of the "white" (Siberian) militia.[^4] [[Alexander Kolchak]] emphasized that

> OMON is a combat unit for the protection and restoration of state order and public peace, serves as a reserve for the formation of militia in areas liberated from Soviet power to train experienced police officers

These militia units operated where open war gave way to [[Partisan (military)|partisan war]]. The detachment consisted of four foot and one horse [[Platoon|platoons]].[^5] The staff included 285 people.[^4] In those days, there was no such thing as a *"omonovets"* therefore these units were called *"guards"*.[^6]

The modern Soviet OMON originated in 1979, when the first Soviet [[Police tactical unit|police tactical unit]] was founded in preparation for the [[1980 Summer Olympics]] in [[Moscow]] to ensure that there were no terrorist incidents like the [[Munich massacre]] during the [[1972 Summer Olympics]]. Subsequently, the unit was to be utilized in emergencies such as high-risk arrests, [[Hostage|hostage]] crises and acts of terror.

The current OMON system is the successor of that group and was founded on 3 October 1988 in Moscow and was called the Militsiya Squad of Special Assignment.[^7] Special police detachments were often composed of former soldiers of the [[Soviet Army]] and veterans of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]]. OMON units were used as [[Riot police|riot police]] to control and stop [[Demonstration (people)|demonstrations]] and [[Hooliganism|hooliganism]], as well as to respond to emergency situations involving violent crime. The units later took on a wider range of police duties, including [[Cordon and search|cordon]] and street [[Patrol|patrol]] actions, and even [[Paramilitary|paramilitary]] and [[Military|military]]\-style operations.

Following Russia's [[Russian police reform|2011 police reform]], Russian OMON units were to be renamed Distinctive Purpose Teams (KON), while OMSN ([[SOBR]]) would become Special Purpose Teams (KSN).[^8] It was announced that Special Purpose Centers for Rapid Deployment forces would also be created in Russian regions, to include regional OMON and OMSN units. In essence, all police [[Spetsnaz|spetsnaz]] (special designation) units were brought together under the joint command of the [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia)|Interior Ministry]][^9] — the Center for Operational Spetsnaz and Aviation Forces of [[MVD]] (Центр специального назначения сил оперативного реагирования и авиации МВД России).

In January 2012, Russia's OMON was renamed from *otryad militsii osobogo naznacheniya*, (Special Purpose Militia Unit) to *otryad mobilniy osobogo naznacheniya* (Special Purpose Mobile Unit), keeping the acronym.

### Soviet OMON activities

On 20 January 1991, Soviet-loyalist [[Riga]] OMON attacked Latvia's [[Interior Ministry]], killing six people during the [[January 1991 events in Latvia|January 1991 events]], in a failed pro-Moscow coup attempt following the [[Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic|Latvian SSR]]'s declaration of independence, which was not confirmed by an internal investigation.[^10] Seven OMON officers were subsequently found guilty by the [[Riga district|Riga District Court]] and were sentenced in absentia. Part of the Riga OMON troops remained loyal to the USSR and their oath of allegiance. The unit was evacuated from Riga to Tyumen in Russia by air force together with all ammunition, vehicles and firearms, and incorporated with local Tyumen OMON.

A series of [[Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border posts|attacks on border outposts]] of the newly independent Republic of Lithuania took place during the period of January to July 1991. These resulted in several [[Summary execution|summary execution]]\-style deaths of unarmed customs officers and other people (including former members of [[Vilnius]] OMON), which were attributed to Riga OMON.[^11] Some sources say that Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] had lost control of the unit during that period. For years, Lithuania continued to demand that the persons suspected in these incidents be tried in Lithuania; one suspect was arrested in Latvia in November 2008.[^12]

The April–May 1991 [[Operation Ring]] by the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan SSR]] OMON and the Soviet Army against the [[Armenian volunteer units during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War|Armenian irregular units]] in the [[Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast]] resulted in forty deaths of mostly Armenian civilians, and the forced displacement of nearly 10,000 ethnic Armenians. In later attacks, several more Armenian civilians were killed; others suffered abuse which included instances of rape. In continuing fighting in this area, fourteen Azerbaijani OMON members and one Armenian paramilitary fighter were reported killed in September 1991.[^13]

Violent and often armed clashes also occurred between the [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic|Georgian SSR]]'s OMON and opponents of the first Georgian President [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]] prior to the [[Georgian civil war of 1991–1993|Georgian Civil War]] of 1991–1993. Eleven combatants on both sides, including Georgian OMON members and regular militsiya officers, were reported killed in skirmishes during September and October 1991. There were also allegations of OMON firing at unarmed protesters.[^13]

### Post-Soviet OMON activities

Prior to the creation of the [[Military of Azerbaijan|Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan]], the bulk of the fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh, on the Azeri side, was conducted by the post-Soviet OMON units and irregular forces. This included the defence of the village of [[Khojali (city)|Khojaly]] by a group of Azeri OMON troops and armed volunteers against the Armenian and [[Russian Ground Forces|Russian Army]] forces prior to, and during, the [[Khojaly massacre]] on 25 February 1992; most of the group involved died along with several hundred other Azeris, mostly civilians.

[[South Ossetia|South Ossetian]] ad hoc OMON, organized by a group of [[Tskhinvali]] internal affairs division militsiya officers, was reportedly the most combat-ready force on the separatist side at the outset of the [[1991–92 South Ossetia War|South Ossetia War]] in April 1992.

In Tajikistan, [[Civil war in Tajikistan|the civil war]] began after local OMON began defecting to anti-[[Rahmon Nabiyev|Nabiyev]] protesters in May 1992.[^14] The country's minority [[Pamiri people]] largely backed the [[United Tajik Opposition]], and for that reason were targeted for massacres by pro-government forces during the bloody first phase of the war in 1992–1993. A significant portion of the Tajikistan MVD's command structure and its OMON consisted mainly of Pamiris who were then either killed or forced to flee to [[Gorno-Badakhshan]].[^15]

[[North Ossetia]]'s OMON participated in the short but vicious 1992 [[East Prigorodny Conflict]] in Russia. They killed or 'disappeared' hundreds of local indigenous [[Ingush people]]. Ossetian OMON reportedly massacred residents of Ingush villages that had first been shelled by Russian federal army tanks that were officially in to the region for 'peacekeeping' purposes.[^16]

Following the [[War of Transnistria]] in 1992, several high-ranking former OMON and [[KGB]] officers assumed senior posts in Moldova's pro-Russian separatist region of [[Transnistria]]. Former Riga OMON Major [[Vladimir Antyufeyev]], who had led the attacks against Latvian authorities in 1991 and was put on the [[Interpol]] wanted list, renamed himself "General Vadim Shevtsov" and became Transnistria's minister of state security and intelligence. He is also alleged to have overseen the self-declared republic's organized criminal smuggling rackets.[^17][^18][^19] In 2012, the KGB of Transnistria announced it has "launched a criminal investigation into Vladimir Antyufeev who is suspected of misuse of state powers."

Moscow OMON, and units brought from other cities, clashed with anti-[[Boris Yeltsin|Yeltsin]] demonstrators during the [[1993 Russian constitutional crisis]] and reportedly beat some members of the [[Supreme Soviet of Russia]] (Russian parliament at the time).[^20]

OMON have broken up several opposition rallies, including the [[Dissenters' March|Dissenters' Marches]] since 2006, sparking reports of [[Police brutality|police brutality]], including excessive use of force and arbitrary [[Detention (imprisonment)|detention]] of participants.[^21] In 2007, the brutal actions of OMON against peaceful protesters and arrests of opposition figures were harshly criticised by the [[European Union]] institutions and governments.[^22] Moscow OMON also made international news when it prevented [[LGBT social movements|gay rights activists]] (including the [[European Parliament]] members) from marching after the Mayor of Moscow [[Yury Luzhkov]] did not allow a planned parade to take place in 2007.[^23]

On 24 March 2006, Belarusian OMON stormed the opposition's tent camp at [[Minsk]]'s [[October Square, Minsk|October Square]] without provocation, violently ending the peaceful [[Jeans Revolution]] against the regime of [[Alexander Lukashenko]]. Thousands of people were beaten and hundreds detained, including the opposition's presidential candidate [[Alaksandr Kazulin]], as a result of the attack.[^24]

In February 2008, Tajik OMON commander Oleg Zakharchenko was killed in a shootout with an anti-organized crime police unit composed of former opposition fighters, under disputed circumstances, in [[Gharm]].[^25] In 2009, the former [[Interior Minister of Tajikistan]], Mahmadnazar Salihov, allegedly committed suicide to avoid being arrested in connection with the case; Salihov's family claimed he was murdered in a political purge.[^26]

South Ossetian separatist OMON took part in the fighting against the [[Georgian Armed Forces]] in August, during the [[2008 South Ossetia war]] and were accused of "special cruelty" against civilians in the overrun ethnic Georgian villages.[^27] Subsequently, South Ossetian OMON fighters were absorbed into Russian regular forces in the area as contract soldiers and continued to be deployed in the highly disputed [[Akhalgori]] zone.[^28]

[[Gulmurod Khalimov]], the Russian-U.S. trained[^29] OMON chief in Tajikistan since 2012, disappeared in 2015.[^30] He had defected to the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] (ISIL) in Syria, and threatened to attack American cities.[^31] He was declared wanted for treason by Tajik government.[^32]

### Conflict in Chechnya

The force was active in the [[First Chechen War]] of 1994–1996 in which OMON was often used in various security and [[Light infantry|light infantry]] roles, notably for the notorious "cleansing" (*[[Zachistka|zachistka]]*) operations.[^33] Prior to the war, there was also an OMON formation belonging to the Interior Ministry (MVD) of the [[Chechen Republic of Ichkeria]], Chechnya's separatist government. The independent Chechnya had an OMON battalion prior to the war, but it was not battle trained,[^34] and did not play any significant role as an organized force before disintegrating. During the armed conflict, almost every Russian city would be regularly sending *militsiya* groups, often OMON members, for tours of usually three or four months. The pro-Moscow administration of the Chechen Republic also formed its own OMON detachments. In February 1996, a group of thirty-seven Russian OMON officers from [[Novosibirsk]] surrendered to Chechen militants of [[Salman Raduyev]] and [[Khunkar-Pasha Israpilov]] during the [[Kizlyar-Pervomayskoye hostage crisis]].[^35]

OMON took part in the [[Second Chechen War]] as well. OMON forces sustained severe losses in the conflict, including from [[Zhani-Vedeno ambush|the March 2000 ambush]] which killed scores of servicemen from [[Berezniki]] and [[Perm, Russia|Perm]] (including nine captured and executed),[^36] the [[July 2000 Chechnya suicide bombings|July 2000 suicide bombing]] which killed at least twenty-five Russians at [[Argun, Chechen Republic|Argun]] base of OMON from [[Chelyabinsk]],[^37] and [[Grozny OMON ambush|the April 2002 mine attack]] which left twenty-one Chechen OMON troops dead in central Grozny.[^38] Control and discipline continued to be questionable in Chechnya, where OMON members were known to have engaged in, or fallen victim to, several deadly incidents of [[Friendly fire|friendly fire]] and [[Fratricide|fratricide]]. In [[Grozny OMON fratricide incident|perhaps the bloodiest of such incidents]], at least twenty-four were killed when OMON from [[Podolsk]] attacked a column of OMON from [[Sergiyev Posad]] in Grozny on 2 March 2000.[^39] Among other incidents, several Chechen OMON servicemen were abducted and executed in Grozny by Russian military servicemen in November 2000,[^40] members of Chechen OMON engaged in [[Ingush-Chechen fratricide incident|a shootout]] with the Ingush police on the border between Chechnya and [[Ingushetia]] resulting in eight fatalities in September 2006,[^41] and [[Ramzan Kadyrov]]\-controlled local OMON clashed with a group of rival Chechens belonging to the Kakiyev's [[Spetsnaz GRU]] military unit in Grozny, resulting in at least five being killed in 2007.

OMON was often accused of severe [[Human rights abuses|human rights abuses]] during the course of the conflict,[^42] including abducting, torturing, raping and killing civilians. By 2000, the bulk of such crimes, as recorded by international organisations in Chechnya, appeared to have been committed either by or with the participation of OMON.[^43] Moscow region OMON took part in the [[Samashki massacre|April 1995 rampage]] in the village of [[Samashki]], where up to 300 civilians were reportedly killed during a large-scale brutal *cleansing* operation by federal MVD forces.[^44] In December 1999, a group of unidentified OMON members manning a roadblock checkpoint [[1999 Grozny refugee convoy shooting|shot dead]] around forty refugees fleeing the siege of Grozny.[^45] OMON from [[Saint Petersburg]][^46] are believed to have been behind the February 2000 [[Novye Aldi massacre]] in which at least sixty civilians were robbed and then killed by Russian forces entering Grozny after the fall of the city;[^47] one officer, [[Sergei Babin]], was to be prosecuted in relation to the case in 2005 but he vanished.[^48][^49] In April 2006, the [[European Court of Human Rights]] found Russia guilty of the [[Forced disappearance|forced disappearance]] of [[Shakhid Baysayev]], a Chechen man who had gone missing after being detained in a March 2000 security sweep by Russian OMON in Grozny.[^50] In 2007, [[Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug]] OMON officer [[Sergey Lapin (police officer)|Sergei Lapin]] was sentenced for the kidnapping and torture of a Chechen man in Grozny in 2001,[^51] with the Grozny court criticising the conduct of OMON serving in Chechnya in broader terms.[^52] In an event related to the conflict in Chechnya, several OMON officers were also accused of starting the May 2007 wave of ethnic violence in [[Stavropol]] by assisting in the racially motivated murder of a local Chechen man.[^53]

### Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses

In 2021 OMON officers tortured Jehovah's Witnesses in [[Irkutsk]] in an attempt to make them inform about other members.[^54]

### Russo-Ukrainian War

Some OMON units participated in the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] where they were intended to disperse riots and control [[Civil unrest|civil unrest]] after [[Kyiv]] would be captured. The failure to capture Kyiv resulted in some SOBR missions becoming redundant, they also ended up engaging in military combat and some of its personnel being killed in action or captured by the [[Ukrainian Armed Forces]].[^55]

A group of OMON officers are suing for unlawful dismissal after being sacked for refusing to fight in Ukraine.[^56] On 28 September 2022, the [[Prosecutor General of Ukraine]] and [[National Police of Ukraine]] published [[Closed-circuit television|CCTV]] footage showing OMON and Rosgvardiya personnel shooting at civilians during the [[Battle of Hostomel|battle of Hostomel]].[^57][^58][^59]

## Russia

In Russia, there is an OMON unit in every [[Oblast|oblast]], as well as in many major cities. Since 2016, the OMON units report directly to the [[National Guard Forces Command]] as part of its regional district commands, and they are expected to be deployed in support of the police forces of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Information from different sources suggested that there were between 10,500 and 15,000 OMON members stationed at population centers and [[Transportation hub|transportation hubs]] around the country during the 1990s. The number officially rose to about 20,000 nationwide by 2007; the biggest OMON unit in Russia, Moscow OMON, numbers over 2,000 members. Most OMON officers retire at the age of approximately forty-five. They were also sometimes not paid for their service. In 2001, for example, some fifty OMON members from Moscow filed a lawsuit claiming they had not been paid for one month of combat operations in Chechnya.[^60] The use of OMON members in high-risk situations, especially in Chechnya and elsewhere in the [[North Caucasus]], often causes the group to lose members in combat.

### Moscow Zubr

The [[Zubr (special police force)|Zubr Special Purpose Police Detachment]] ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Отряд Милиции Особого Назначения "Зубр"; is Russian for Bison, particularly the [[European bison]]) of the [[Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia]] was created in February 2006 on the basis of the OMON GUVD in the [[Moscow Region]] that existed since 1988.[^61] It is based in [[Shchyolkovo|Shchelkovo-7]] near Moscow. Zubr was made up of officers drawn from the OMON riot police near Moscow and numbered about 430 people. Zubr is equipped with armored personnel carriers, [[Tigr (Russian military vehicle)|Tigrs]] and other special equipment, and includes snipers and dog handlers.[^62][^63]

### Equipment

OMON groups use a wide range of firearms, including [[AK-74]] assault rifle, [[AKS-74U]] carbine assault rifle, [[9A-91]] compact assault rifle, and [[PP-19 Bizon]] submachine gun, and the [[Makarov pistol]], [[Stechkin automatic pistol]] and the [[MP-443 Grach]] or [[GSh-18]] are assigned as sidearms. OMON units may use other weaponry, typically used by Russian light infantry during special operations and in war zones, such as: the [[PK machine gun]], the [[GP-25]] underbarrel grenade launcher for assault rifle or the [[GM-94|GM-94 pump-action grenade launcher]], [[Rocket-propelled grenade|RPG]] series rocket-proppelled grenade launchers, and the [[Dragunov sniper rifle|Dragunov]] and [[Vintorez]] [[Designated marksman rifle|designated marksman rifles]]. The kind of issued protective gear is shared with regular National Guard units. The Bagariy body armor is a common sight replacing the older Kora-Kulon while the ZSH 1–2 is the main issued helmet with the older Kolpak being used only on riot duty. They are sometimes called "OMON soldiers".[^64]

As [[Riot police|riot police]], OMON often uses special equipment termed [[Riot control|riot gear]] to help protect themselves and attack others. Riot gear typically includes [[Personal armor|personal armor]], [[Baton (law enforcement)|batons]], [[Riot shield|riot]] and [[Tactical shield|tactical shields]], and [[Riot helmet|riot helmets]]. OMON also deploys specialized [[Less-than-lethal|less-than-lethal]] weapons, such as [[Water cannon|water cannon]], [[Pepper spray|pepper spray]], [[Tear gas|tear gas]], [[Sponge grenade|sponge grenades]], [[Osa (handgun)|pistols]], rifles, and shotguns which fire [[Rubber bullets|rubber bullets]], [[Bean bag round|bean bag rounds]], [[Stun grenades|stun grenades]], and [[Long Range Acoustic Device|Long Range Acoustic Devices]].

### Transport

OMON vehicles include specially-equipped vans, buses and trucks of various types (often armored and sometimes equipped with mounted machine guns), as well as a limited number of armored personnel carriers such as [[Tigr (Russian military vehicle)|GAZ Tigr]], [[BTR-60]], [[BTR-70]] and [[BTR-80]].

### Uniforms

OMON's headgear remains their signature black [[Military beret|beret]] (they are thus sometimes called *Black Berets*), which they share with the [[Naval Infantry (Russia)|Naval Infantry]].

OMON, as part of the RosGvard, is transitioning to the Russian version of the ATACS LE (blue/grey) but units are still seen wearing the traditional Noch-91 uniform in all-black, and blue or gray [[Tigerstripe]] camouflage,[^65] a not uncommon sight has been a variety of Russian Army and [[Internal Troops of Russia|Russian Internal Troops]] uniforms,[^65] often with (black) [[Balaclava (clothing)|balaclava]] masks and/or helmets.

## Rest of the former Soviet Union

-   OMON of Abkhazia
-   OMON of Armenia
-   [[Special Purpose Police Unit (Azerbaijan)|XTPD/OPON]] – Azerbaijani paramilitary successor to OMON (forcibly disbanded by the government security forces after an OPON revolt in 1995)
-   [[OMON (Belarus)|OMON (AMAP)]] – Belarusian paramilitary successor to OMON
-   Arystan Commando Unit – Kazakh paramilitary successor to OMON, falling under the command of the [[National Security Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan]].
-   OMON of Kyrgyzstan
-   [[ARAS (Lithuania)]]
-   BPDS/OPON – Moldovan paramilitary successor to OMON, falling under the command of the [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Moldova)|Ministry of Internal Affairs]]. It is officially known as the Special Purpose Police Brigade "Fulger".[^66]
-   OMON of South Ossetia
-   [[OMON of Tajikistan]]
-   OMON of [[Transnistria]]
-   [[Berkut (special police force)|Berkut]] – Ukrainian special police successor to OMON (disbanded following a revolution in 2014[^67] and replaced with the [[Special Tasks Patrol Police]])

## Notes

[^1]: [[Russian language|Russian]]: ОМОН – отряд мобильный особого назначения, [[Romanization of Russian|romanized]]: *OMON - otryad mobilnyy osobogo naznacheniya*, [[Literal translation|lit.]] 'Special-Purpose Mobile Unit (SPMU)', pronounced \[ɐˈmon | ɐˈtrʲat mɐˈbʲilʲnɨj ɐˈsobəvə nəznɐˈt͡ɕenɪjə\], before 2011 [[Russian language|Russian]]: отряд милиции особого назначения, [[Romanization of Russian|romanized]]: *otryad militsii osobogo naznacheniya*, [[Literal translation|lit.]] 'Special-Purpose Police Unit'
[^2]: Sliwa, Zdzislaw (2018). [*The Russian National Guard: A Warning or a Message?*](https://web.archive.org/web/20220804003227/https://www.baltdefcol.org/files/files/publications/RussianNationalGuard.pdf) (PDF). Centre for Security and Strategic Research. p. 20. Archived from [the original](https://www.baltdefcol.org/files/files/publications/RussianNationalGuard.pdf) (PDF) on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
[^3]: [МВД России](https://мвд.рф/mvd) – "Сегодня от работы МВД зависят многие аспекты повседневной жизни граждан. Органы внутренних дел занимаются обеспечением порядка на улицах, предотвращением и раскрытием преступлений, защитой и охраной частной собственности, государственных и коммерческих объектов. Подразделения МВД борются за безопасность на дорогах страны, обеспечивают проведение массовых мероприятий, днем и ночью приходят на помощь гражданам в чрезвычайных ситуациях. От министра до участкового Министерство внутренних дел – на страже интересов гражданина, закона и общества."
[^4]: Агалаков, Александр (8 February 2012). ["Отряды ОМОНа создал адмирал Колчак"](https://nsk.aif.ru/society/society_education/109532). *nsk.aif.ru*. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
[^5]: ["Милиция адмирала Колчака | Back in the USSR"](https://maxpark.com/community/129/content/4980287). *maxpark.com*. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
[^6]: ["Милиция другого цвета | Библиотека сибирского краеведения"](http://bsk.nios.ru/content/miliciya-drugogo-cveta). *bsk.nios.ru*. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
[^7]: Министерство Внутренних ДелРоссийской Федерации. ["MVD website, history"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131205052341/https://mvd.ru/document/101820?-1977.048095703125). Mvd.ru. Archived from [the original](http://mvd.ru/document/101820?-1977.048095703125) on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
[^8]: Moscow News, 22 August 2011: [Retooling Russia's Riot Police](http://themoscownews.com/siloviks_scoundrels/20110822/188946619.html)
[^9]: ["Police spetsnaz reforms 2011"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131202231834/http://www.agentura.ru/english/projects/control/policereforms2011/). Agentura.ru. Archived from [the original](http://www.agentura.ru/english/projects/control/policereforms2011/) on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
[^10]: [[BBC News]], 27 March 2007: [Timeline: Latvia](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1108059.stm)
[^11]: [Pasienio apsaugos tarnyba // Fight for Independence 1990–1991](http://www.pasienis.lt/index.php?1542036138) (English)
[^12]: *[[Novaya Gazeta]]*, 29.11.2008: [The unmasked face](https://en.novayagazeta.ru/data/2008/08/12.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110716055634/http://en.novayagazeta.ru/data/2008/08/12.html) 16 July 2011 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
[^13]: [*Human Rights Watch World Report 1992: Events of 1991*](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_hZMn3HsYouMC). Human Rights Watch. 1991. p. [532](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_hZMn3HsYouMC/page/n538). [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 9781564320537. Retrieved 23 February 2014 – via [[Internet Archive]].
[^14]: [*From Promise to Practice*](https://archive.org/details/frompromisetopra0000unse). Lynne Rienner Publishers. 2003. p. [276](https://archive.org/details/frompromisetopra0000unse/page/276). Retrieved 23 February 2014 – via [[Internet Archive]].
[^15]: Denber, Rachel (8 June 1993). [*Human Rights in Tajikistan: In the Wake of Civil War – Rachel Denber, Barnett R. Rubin, Jeri Laber*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NFSYcyJULK0C&pg=PA1). Human Rights Watch. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 9781564321190. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
[^16]: Huntington, Samuel P. (31 May 2007). [*The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order – Samuel P. Huntington*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LO4xG-bH1CQC&pg=PA276). Simon and Schuster. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 9781416561248. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
[^17]: [*Russia and the New States of Eurasia: The Politics of Upheaval – Karen Dawisha*](https://archive.org/details/russianewstateso00dawi). Cambridge University Press. 28 January 1994. p. [183](https://archive.org/details/russianewstateso00dawi/page/183). Retrieved 3 March 2014 – via [[Internet Archive]].
[^18]: Galeotti, Mark (2004). ["The Transdnistrian Connection: Big Problems from a Small Pseudo-state"](https://www.academia.edu/2044346). *Global Crime* (in Polish). **6** (3–4). Academia.edu: 398–405\. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[10.1080/17440570500277359](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17440570500277359). [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [146405023](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146405023). Retrieved 3 March 2014.
[^19]: Wines, Michael (5 March 2002). ["Trans-Dniester 'Nation' Resents Shady Reputation – New York Times"](https://www.nytimes.com/2002/03/05/world/trans-dniester-nation-resents-shady-reputation.html). *[[The New York Times]]*. Moldova; Trans-Dnestr (Moldova). Retrieved 3 March 2014.
[^20]: [[Memorial (society)|Memorial]], April 1994: [HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS UNDER THE STATE OF EMERGENCY IN MOSCOW DURING THE PERIOD FROM NOON, OCTOBER 4 TO OCTOBER 18, 1993](http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/moscow93/oct93e.htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070814094522/http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/moscow93/oct93e.htm) 14 August 2007 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
[^21]: [[Amnesty International]], 16 April 2007: [Russian Federation: Attack on public dissent](http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGEUR460132007?open&of=ENG-RUS) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20071115061840/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGEUR460132007?open&of=ENG-RUS) 15 November 2007 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
[^22]: (in Polish) [[Polska Agencja Prasowa]], 26 November 2007: [Milicja biła opozycję, Europa oburzona](http://www.dziennik.pl/swiat/article87208/Milicja_bila_opozycje_Europa_oburzona.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20071214102239/http://www.dziennik.pl/swiat/article87208/Milicja_bila_opozycje_Europa_oburzona.html) 14 December 2007 at the [[Wayback Machine]] (*[[Dziennik Polska-Europa-Świat]]*)
[^23]: [[The Associated Press]], 27 May 2007: [Russian Police Detain Gay Activists](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052700426.html?tid=informbox) (*[[The Washington Post]]*)
[^24]: *[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]*, 25 March 2006: [Belarus: 'They Knocked My Husband Down and Dragged Him Away'](https://web.archive.org/web/20070310232606/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1176933,00.html)
[^25]: IWPR Central Asia – Central Asia. ["Murder Invokes Ghosts of Tajikistan's Past – Institute for War and Peace Reporting – P220"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140228105000/http://iwpr.net/report-news/murder-invokes-ghosts-tajikistan%E2%80%99s-past). Iwpr.net. Archived from [the original](http://iwpr.net/report-news/murder-invokes-ghosts-tajikistan%E2%80%99s-past) on 28 February 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2014. ["Tajikistan: The opposition braces itself for clashes with the regular army – Ferghana Information agency, Moscow"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130625074907/http://enews.fergananews.com/articles/2324). Enews.fergananews.com. 4 February 2008. Archived from [the original](http://enews.fergananews.com/articles/2324) on 25 June 2013. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
[^26]: ["Tajikistan: Former Interior Minister Commits Suicide to Preempt Arrest, Officials Insist"](http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/news/articles/eav061809b.shtml). EurasiaNet.org. 17 June 2009. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
[^27]: *The Georgian Times*, 15 September 2008: ["Resistance does not make any sense: they will kill us on the spot"](http://www.geotimes.ge/index.php?m=home&newsid=12473) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080906133140/http://www.geotimes.ge/index.php?m=home&newsid=12473) 6 September 2008 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
[^28]: [[Imedi Media Holding|Imedi TV]], 16 October 2008: [Ossetian militiamen join Russian regular army](http://halldor2.wordpress.com/2008/10/16/ossetian-militiamen-join-russian-regular-army/) (trans. [[BBC Monitoring]])
[^29]: ["U.S. Trained Tajik IS Recruit"](https://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-is/27045624.html). *Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty*. 31 May 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
[^30]: ["Mystery of Missing Tajik OMON Commander Deepens"](https://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-missing-police-commander-case/27027116.html). *Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty*. 20 May 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
[^31]: ["The U.S.-trained commander of Tajikistan's special forces has joined the Islamic State"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/05/28/the-u-s-trained-commander-of-tajikistans-special-forces-has-joined-the-islamic-state/). *[[The Washington Post]]*. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
[^32]: ["Tajik Police Officer Wanted For Treason"](https://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-police-commander-islamic-state-treason/27051207.html). *Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty*. 3 June 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
[^33]: [[Human Rights Watch]], February 1995: [Russia: Three Months of War in Chechnya](https://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Russia1.htm)
[^34]: ["Dalkhan Khozhaev"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080308081709/http://smallwarsjournal.com/documents/khozhevinterview.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](http://smallwarsjournal.com/documents/khozhevinterview.pdf) (PDF) on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
[^35]: "Fog of battle clouds Pervomayskoye's ugly truth". *[[The Independent]]*. 20 January 1996.
[^36]: *[[The Sunday Times]]* (UK), 9 April 2000: [Chechens wipe out Russia's top troops](http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/4236.html##10) ([[Center for Defense Information]])
[^37]: *[[People's Daily]]*, 3 July 2000: [Chechen Truck Bomb Kills at Least 25 Russians](http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200007/03/eng20000703_44550.html)
[^38]: *[[The St. Petersburg Times (Russia)|The St. Petersburg Times]]*, 19 April 2002: [Mine Leaves 21 OMON Troops Dead](http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=7009) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070930184603/http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=7009) 30 September 2007 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
[^39]: "Russia invented ambush by Chechens to hide friendly-fire massacre". *[[The Independent]]*. 15 January 2002.
[^40]: [[European Court of Human Rights]], 2007-11-15: [CASE OF KUKAYEV v. RUSSIA](http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?action=html&documentId=825673&portal=hbkm&source=externalbydocnumber&table=F69A27FD8FB86142BF01C1166DEA398649)
[^41]: *[[The Moscow Times]]*, 14 September 2006: [7 Dead in Police-OMON Battle](http://www.themoscowtimes.com/stories/2006/09/14/011.html)
[^42]: *[[The Washington Post]]*, 2 June 2000: [Civilian Massacre Fits Pattern Of Earlier Human Rights Abuse](http://tech.mit.edu/V120/N27/massacre_27.27w.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20221012190225/http://tech.mit.edu/V120/N27/massacre_27.27w.html) 12 October 2022 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
[^43]: [[Institute for War and Peace Reporting]], 5 April 2000: [Chechens Rub Salt in Old Wounds](http://iwpr.net/?p=crs&s=f&o=161280&apc_state=henicrs2000)
[^44]: [[Memorial (society)|Memorial]], 1996: [By All Available Means: The Russian Federation Ministry of Internal Affairs Operation in the village of Samashki: 7–8 April 1995](http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/chechen/samashki/engl/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070813234314/http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/chechen/samashki/engl/) 13 August 2007 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
[^45]: "Rebels inflict heavy losses as Russian forces close on Grozny". *[[The Independent]]*. 6 December 1999.
[^46]: [[Institute for War and Peace Reporting]], 9 August 2007: [Chechen Massacre Survivors See Justice](http://www.iwpr.net/?p=crs&s=f&o=337763&apc_state=henh)
[^47]: [[Human Rights Watch]], June 2000: [FEBRUARY 5: A DAY OF SLAUGHTER IN NOVYE ALDI](https://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/russia_chechnya3/)
[^48]: *[[Los Angeles Times]]*, 3 July 2005: [An Unlikely Antiwar Hero for Russians](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-jul-03-fg-officer3-story.html)
[^49]: ["Prague Watchdog – Crisis in Chechnya – ECHR on Russian war crimes: responses from Moscow and Grozny"](http://www.watchdog.cz/?show=000000-000008-000001-000452&lang=1). *www.watchdog.cz*. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
[^50]: [[Prima (news agency)|Prima]], 11 April 2005: [European Court of Human Rights finds Russia guilty in disappearance of man in Chechnya](http://www.prima-news.ru/eng/news/news/2007/4/11/37974.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070929092320/http://www.prima-news.ru/eng/news/news/2007/4/11/37974.html) 29 September 2007 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
[^51]: *[[The St. Petersburg Times (Russia)|The St. Petersburg Times]]*, 1 April 2005: [Chechen Court Sends OMON Officer to Jail](http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=3119) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090214110542/http://www.sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=3119) 14 February 2009 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
[^52]: [[Amnesty International]], 31 March 2005: [Russian Federation: Russian police officer found guilty of crimes against the civilian population in the Chechen Republic](http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGEUR460112005) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080905182051/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGEUR460112005) 5 September 2008 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
[^53]: [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]], 7 June 2007: [Russia: Ethnic Tensions Mounting In Restive Stavropol](https://www.rferl.org/a/1076993.html)
[^54]: Service, Forum 18 News. ["RUSSIA: "Unjustified, unmotivated cruelty against peaceful, unresisting believers""](https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2693). *www.forum18.org*. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
[^55]: Schreck, Carl (6 March 2022). ["'Sent As Cannon Fodder': Locals Confront Russian Governor Over 'Deceived' Soldiers In Ukraine"](https://www.rferl.org/a/russian-soldiers-ukraine-cannon-fodder-governor/31739187.html). *Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty*. Retrieved 21 April 2022.
[^56]: ["Russian riot police sue after being sacked for refusing to fight"](https://www.afr.com/world/europe/zelensky-accuses-west-of-cowardice-20220328-p5a8gd). 27 March 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
[^57]: ["Ukraine charges Russian soldiers alleged to have shot at civilian cars"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/28/ukraine-charges-russian-soldiers-alleged-to-have-shot-at-civilian-cars). *[[TheGuardian.com]]*. 28 September 2022.
[^58]: ["Five russian servicemen were notified of suspicion of shooting cars with civilians in Hostomel"](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7AY59Fr5R0I). *[[YouTube]]*.
[^59]: ["11 вбитих та 15 поранених на Київщині: оголошено підозру військовим рф, які розстрілювали людей"](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_otmp16YKA). *[[YouTube]]*.
[^60]: [[Gazeta.ru]], 27 June 2003: [Moscow policemen want Chechen money](http://www.gazeta.ru/2003/07/04/Moscowpolice.shtml)
[^61]: ["Что такое отряд "Зубр""](https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/1098044). *Коммерсантъ*. 22 December 2008 – via Kommersant.
[^62]: ["Медведев посетил базу "Зубра", бойцы которого жестко разгоняли демонстрантов во Владивостоке"](https://www.newsru.com/russia/21mar2011/zubr.html). *NEWSru.com*. 21 March 2011.
[^63]: ["Новые разоблачения от The New Times: на даче у замглавы МВД РФ работали захваченные рабы-гастарбайтеры"](https://www.newsru.com/russia/22feb2010/newslaves.html). *NEWSru.com*. 22 February 2010.
[^64]: [[Google]]: ["OMON soldiers" search results](http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22OMON+soldiers%22+&btnG=Google+Search)
[^65]: ["Suit "Night 91M""](https://web.archive.org/web/20220706193438/http://ana-tactical.com/Camouflage/Russian-Combat-Uniform/ANA-Suit-Noch-91-M). Archived from [the original](http://ana-tactical.com/Camouflage/Russian-Combat-Uniform/ANA-Suit-Noch-91-M) on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
[^66]: ["BPDS "Fulger" – de 27 de ani la straja securității naționale | Ministerul Afacerilor Interne"](https://mai.gov.md/ro/news/bpds-fulger-de-27-de-ani-la-straja-securitatii-nationale). mai.gov.md. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
[^67]: ["Ukraine's Feared Berkut Riot Force Disbanded"](https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/ukraines-feared-berkut-riot-force-disbanded-22683286). ABC News. Associated Press. 26 February 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2014.