**Emmaus** (/ɪˈmeɪəs/ *im-AY\-əs*; [[Koine Greek language|Koine Greek]]: Ἐμμαούς, romanized: *Emmaoús*; [[Latin language|Latin]]: *Emmaus*; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عمواس, [[Romanization of Arabic|romanized]]: *ʿImwās*) is a town mentioned in the [[Gospel of Luke]] of the [[New Testament]]. Luke reports that [[Jesus]] appeared, after his death and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], before two of his disciples while they were walking on the road to Emmaus.[^1]

Although its geographical identification is not certain, several locations have been suggested throughout history, chiefly [[Imwas]] and [[Al-Qubeiba, Jerusalem|Al-Qubeiba]], both in the [[West Bank]]. It is known only that it was connected by a road to [[Jerusalem]]; the distance given by Luke varies in different manuscripts and the figure given has been made even more ambiguous by interpretations.[^2]

## Names and location

The place-name Emmaus is relatively common in classical sources about the [[Levant]] and is usually derived through Greek and Latin from the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] word for "warm spring", the Hebrew form of which is *hamma* or *hammat* (חמת). In the ancient and present-day [[Middle East]], many sites are named [[Hama (disambiguation)|Hama]] Hamath and variations thereof.[^3]

The name for Emmaus was [[Hellenized|hellenized]] during the 2nd century BC and appears in Jewish and Greek texts in many variations: Ammaus, Ammaum, Emmaus, Emmaum, Maus, Amus, etc.: [[Greek language|Greek]]: Άμμαούμ, Άμμαούς, Έμμαούμ, Έμμαούς, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: אמאוס, אמאום, עמאוס, עמאום, עמוס, מאום, אמהום[^4]

Emmaus may derive from the Hebrew *ḥammat* ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: חמת) meaning "hot spring",[^5] although this remains uncertain. It is generally referred to in Hebrew sources as *Ḥamtah* or *Ḥamtān*.[^6] A spring of Emmaus ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ἐμμαοῦς πηγή), or alternatively a 'spring of salvation' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: πηγή σωτήριος) is attested in Greek sources.[^7] Unlike other Biblical or Mishnaic sites with the name "Ḥamah" and where the traditional Hebrew spelling חמה has been preserved in classical texts throughout the ages, Emmaus differs insofar that the traditional Hebrew spelling for this place in most classical sources is אמאוס or עמאוס. During the late [[Second Temple]] period, Emmaus was renamed Nicopolis ("[[Polis|City]] of [[Nike (mythology)|Victory]]"), a name remained in use as late as the 6th-century [[Madaba Map]]. Emmaus is mentioned by this name in [[Midrash]] Zutta for Song of Songs 6,8 and [[Midrash Rabba]] for Lamentations 1,45,[^4] and in the [[Midrash Rabba]] on Ecclesiastes (7:15).[^8] According to [[Sozomen]] (fl. 400–450), it was renamed by the [[Ancient Romans|Romans]] "in consequence of the conquest of [[Jerusalem]] and the victory over the [[Jews]]."[^9]

## Emmaus in the New Testament

Emmaus is mentioned in the [[Gospel of Luke]] as the village where Jesus appeared to his disciples after his crucifixion and resurrection. [Luke 24:13–35](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke%2024:13–35&version=nrsv) indicates that [[Jesus]] appears after his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] to two disciples who are walking from Jerusalem to Emmaus, which is described as being 60 [[Stadion (unit)|stadia]] (10.4 to 12 km depending on what definition of *stadion* is used) from Jerusalem. One of the disciples is named [[Cleopas]] (verse 18), while his companion remains unnamed:

> That very day two of them were going to a village (one hundred and) sixty stadia away from Jerusalem called Emmaus, and they were speaking about all the things that had occurred. And it happened that while they were speaking and debating, Jesus himself drew near and walked with them, but their eyes were prevented from recognizing him … As they approached the village to which they were going, he gave the impression that he was going on further. But they urged him, "Stay with us, for it is nearly evening and the day is declining." So he went in to stay with them. And it happened that, while he was with them at table, he took bread, said the blessing, broke it, and gave it to them. With that their eyes were opened and they recognized him.

According to the gospel, the story takes place in the evening of the day of Jesus's resurrection. The two disciples hear that the tomb of Jesus was found empty earlier that day. They are discussing the events of the past few days when a stranger asks them what they are discussing. "Their eyes were kept from recognizing him." He rebukes them for their unbelief and explains prophecies about the Messiah to them. On reaching Emmaus, they ask the stranger to join them for the evening meal.

When he breaks the bread, "their eyes \[are\] opened" and they recognize him as the resurrected Christ. Jesus immediately vanishes. Cleopas and his friend then hasten back to Jerusalem to carry the news to the other disciples.

A similar event is mentioned in the [[Gospel of Mark]] ([Mark 16:12–16:13](https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Mark%2016:12–13)), although the disciples' destination is not stated. This passage is believed by some to be a late addition, derived from the Gospel of Luke.[^10]

The incident is not mentioned in the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] or [[Gospel of John|John]].

## Possible locations

Emmaus is the Greek variant of the Hebrew word and place-name for [[Hot spring|hot springs]], *hammat*, and is therefore not unique to one location, which makes the identification of the New Testament site more difficult.

Several places in [[Judea]] and [[Galilee]] are called Emmaus in the Bible, the works of [[Josephus Flavius]], and other sources from the relevant period. The one most often mentioned is a town of some importance situated in the Valley of [[Ajalon]] (today, Ayyalon), later called [[Emmaus Nicopolis]].

## Historical identification

Many sites have been suggested for the biblical Emmaus, among them Emmaus Nicopolis (c. 160 stadia from Jerusalem), [[Kiryat Anavim]] (66 stadia from Jerusalem on the carriage road to [[Jaffa]]), Coloniya (c. 36 stadia on the carriage road to Jaffa), el-Kubeibeh (63 stadia, on the [[Roman roads in Judaea/Palaestina|Roman road]] to [[Lod|Lydda]]), [[Artas, Bethlehem|Artas]] (60 stadia from Jerusalem) and Khurbet al-Khamasa (86 stadia on the Roman road to [[Bayt Jibrin|Eleutheropolis]]).[^11] The oldest identification that is currently known is Emmaus Nicopolis. The identification is complicated by the fact that New Testament manuscripts list at least three different distances between Jerusalem and Emmaus in Luke 24:13-14.[^12]

### Emmaus Nicopolis/Imwas

The first modern site identification of Emmaus was by the explorer [[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Edward Robinson]], who equated it with the [[Palestinian Arab]] village of [[Imwas]] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عِمواس), near the Latrun Abbey.[^13] Before [[Naksa|its destruction]] during the [[Six-Day War]] in 1967, the village of Imwas was located at the end of the [[Ayalon Valley]], on the border of the hill country of [[West Bank|Judah]], at 153 stadia (18.6 miles) from [[Jerusalem]] via the Kiryat Yearim Ridge Route, 161 stadia (19.6 miles) via the [[Beth-horon|Beth-Horon Ridge Route]] and 1,600 feet (490 m) lower by elevation.

[[Eusebius]] was probably the first to mention Nicopolis as biblical Emmaus in his Onomasticon. [[Jerome]], who translated Eusebius' book, implied in his letter 108 that there was a church in Nicopolis built in the house of [[Cleopas]] where Jesus broke bread on that late journey. From the 4th century on, the site was commonly identified as the biblical Emmaus.

Emmaus Nicopolis appears on Roman geographical maps. The [[Peutinger Table]] situates it about 31 km (19 mi) west of Jerusalem, while the [[Ptolemy]] map shows it at a distance of 32 km (20 mi) from the city. The Emmaus in the [[Gospel of Luke]] seems to lie some 12.1 km (7.5 mi) from Jerusalem, though a textual minor variant, conserved in [[Codex Sinaiticus]], gives the distance between the New Testament Emmaus and Jerusalem as 160 stadia.[^14] The geographical position of Emmaus is described in the [[Jerusalem Talmud]], Tractate Sheviit 9.2:[^15]

> From [[Bethoron|Bet Horon]] to the Sea is one domain. Yet is it one domain without regions? Rabbi Johanan said, "Still there is Mountain, Lowland, and Valley. From Bet Horon to Emmaus ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: אמאום, [[Literal translation|lit.]] 'Emmaum') it is Mountain, from Emmaus to Lydda Lowland, from Lydda to the Sea Valley. Then there should be four stated? They are adjacent."

Archaeologically, many remains have been excavated at the site of the former Palestinian village, now located inside [[Canada Park]], which support historical and traditional claims. Five structures were found and dated, including a Christian basilica from the 6th century and a 12th-century Crusader church.[^16] Emmaus Nicopolis is a [[Titular see|titular see]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].[^2]

There are several sources giving information about this town's ancient history, among them the First Book of Maccabees, the works of Josephus, and chronicles from the Late Roman, Byzantine and Early Muslim periods. According to [[1 Maccabees]] 3:55-4:22, around 166 BC [[Judas Maccabeus]] fought against the [[Seleucids]] in the region of this particular Emmaus, and was victorious at the [[Battle of Emmaus]]; later, this town was fortified by [[Bacchides (general)|Bacchides]], a Seleucid general (1 Macc 9:50). When Rome took over the land it became the capital of a district or [[Toparchy|toparchy]], and was burnt by order of [[Publius Quintilius Varus|Varus]] after the death of [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in 4 BC. During the [[First Jewish Revolt]], before the siege of Jerusalem, [[Vespasian]]'s 5th legion was deployed there while the 10th Legion was in [[Jericho]]. The town was renamed Emmaus Nicopolis in AD 221 by Emperor [[Elagabalus]], who conferred it the title of *polis* ("city") following the request of a delegation from Emmaus. The [[Plague of Emmaus]] in AD 639, mentioned in Muslim sources, is claimed to have caused up to 25,000 deaths in the town.

Nicopolis ([[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]]: Νικόπολις, *Nikópolis*) was the name of Emmaus ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: אמאוס; [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]]: Ἀμμαοῦς, *Ammaoûs*; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عِمواس, *Imwas*) under the [[Roman Empire]] until the [[Islamic conquest of Palestine|conquest of Palestine]] by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] in 639. The [[Church Fathers]] unanimously considered this city to be the Emmaus of the [[New Testament]] where [[Jesus Christ|Jesus]] was said to have [[Transfiguration of Jesus|appeared]] after his [[Crucifixion of Jesus|death]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]; it is sometimes distinguished from [[Emmaus (disambiguation)|other Emmauses]] of [[Roman Palestine|Palestine]] and other [[Nicopolis (disambiguation)|Nicopolises]] of the Roman Empire by the combined name Emmaus Nicopolis or Emmaus-Nicopolis. The site of the ancient city, now lies between [[Tel Aviv]] and Jerusalem in Israel. The archaeological site has been cared for by a resident [[French Catholic]] community since 1993 but are formally organized as a part of [[Canada Park]] under the general supervision of the [[Israel Nature and Parks Authority]].[^17][^4]

#### Hellenistic, Hasmonean period

Due to its strategic position, Emmaus played an important administrative, military and economic role in history. The first mention of Emmaus occurs in the [[1 Maccabees|First Book of Maccabees]], chapters 3–4, in the context of [[Judas Maccabeus]] and his revolt against the Greek [[Seleucid Empire]] in the 2nd century bc. The first major battle of the revolt, the [[Battle of Emmaus]], is traditionally believed to have occurred in this area, with the Seleucids establishing a fortified camp here from which to control the countryside.[^8] During the [[Hasmonean]] period, Emmaus became a regional administrative centre ([[Toparchy|toparchy]]) in the [[Ajalon|Ayalon]] Valley.[^18]

According to one theory, Emmaus of the Hasmonean and early Roman periods was located at [[Horvat 'Eqed]].[^19]

#### Roman period

[[Josephus Flavius]] mentions Emmaus in his writings several times.[^20] He speaks about the destruction of Emmaus by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in 4 BC.[^21] The importance of the city was recognized by the Emperor [[Vespasian]], who established a fortified camp there in AD 68 to house the fifth ("Macedonian") legion,[^22] populating it with 800 veterans,[^23][^24] though this may refer to [[Qalunya]] rather than Emmaus Nicopolis.[^25] Archaeological works indicate that the town was cosmopolitan, with a mixed Jewish, pagan and Samaritan population.[^6] In AD 130 or 131, the city was destroyed by an earthquake. In 132, the ruins of Emmaus fortress were briefly reconstructed by Judean rebels under Simon Bar Kokhba and used as a hideout during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt|revolt]].[^26]

The city of Nicopolis was founded on the ruins of Emmaus in early 3rd century, after [[Sextus Julius Africanus|Julius Africanus]], who said he had interviewed descendants of Jesus' relatives, headed an embassy to Rome and had an interview with the Roman emperor [[Elagabalus]] on behalf of Emmaus, then a small Palestinian village (κώμη).[^27] St. Eusebius writes "*Emmaus, whence was Cleopas who is mentioned by the Evangelist Luke. Today it is Nicopolis, a famous city of Palestine.*"[^28] In 222, a [[Basilica|basilica]] was erected there, which was rebuilt first by the Byzantines and later modified by the [[Crusaders]].[^6]

Archaeological evidence attests to the existence of a Samaritan [[Synagogue|synagogue]] at the site: a limestone capital, discovered in secondary use in the floor of a twelfth-century church, is believed to have originally belonged to this synagogue. The capital, in a debased [[Ionic order|Ionic]] style, bears two inscriptions — one in Hebrew (ברוך שמו לעולם, "Blessed be His Name forever") and the other in Greek (EIC ΘEOC, "One God") — suggesting its function as part of the façade of the synagogue's [[Torah ark|Holy Ark]].[^29]

#### Byzantine period

During the Byzantine period Nicopolis became a [[Diocese|bishopric]] and a substantial church complex was erected on the spot where tradition maintained the apparition of the [[Resurrection of Jesus|risen]] [[Christ]] had occurred, a site which then became a place of [[Pilgrimage|pilgrimage]], and whose ruins are still extant.

#### Early Muslim period

At the time of the [[Islamic conquest of Palestine]], the main encampment of the Arab army was established in Emmaus, when a plague (*ța'ūn*) struck, carrying off many of [[Sahabah|Companions of the Prophet]]. This first encounter of the Arab armies with the chronic plagues of [[Bilad al-Sham|Syria]] was later referred to as the 'plague of 'Amawās', a and the event marked the decline of Emmaus Nicopolis. A well on the site still bears an inscription reading "the well of the plague" (*bi'r aț-ța'ūn*).[^6]

#### Crusader period

During the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Crusader period]], the Christian presence resumed at Emmaus, and the Byzantine church was restored. However, the memory of the apparition of the risen Jesus at Emmaus also started to be celebrated in three other places in the Holy Land: [[Motza]] (c. 4 mi or 6 km west of Jerusalem), [[Qubeibe]] (c. 7 mi or 11 km northwest of Jerusalem), and [[Abu Ghosh]] (c. 7 mi or 11 km west of Jerusalem).

#### Ottoman period

The Arab village of Imwas was identified once again as the [[Biblical|biblical]] Emmaus and the Roman-Byzantine Nicopolis by scholars in the 19th century, including [[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Edward Robinson]](1838–1852),[^30][^31] [[M.-V. Guérin]] (1868), [[Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau]] (1874), and J.-B. Guillemot (1880–1887). Significantly, a local mystic named Saint [[Mariam Baouardy|Mariam of Jesus Crucified]], a nun of the [[Carmelite]] monastery of [[Bethlehem]], had a revelation while in ecstatic prayer in 1878 in which [[Jesus]] appeared to indicate Amwas was the Gospel Emmaus. "She came to the top of a knoll where, amid grass and thorns, there were some freestones leveled. Transported and moved, she turned toward her sisters \[in religion\], and said to them in a loud voice: 'This is truly the place where our Lord ate with His disciples.'"[^32] On the basis of this revelation, the holy place of Emmaus was acquired by the Carmelite order from the [[Muslims]] in 1878, excavations were carried out, and the flow of pilgrims to Emmaus resumed.

#### British Mandate

In 1930, the Carmelite Order built a monastery, the *House of Peace*, on the tract of land purchased in 1878. In November 1947, the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] attributed the area to the Arab State. Prior to the outbreak of hostilities in the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]], ʻImwâs had a population of 1,100 Arabs.[^33]

#### Jordan

Israelis and Jordanians fought during the [[Battle of Latrun|battle of Latrun]] for the control of this strategic zone which blockaded the road to Jerusalem. As part of the outcome of the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|war]] the Palestinian village of [[Imwas]], which lay on the site of Emmaus Nicopolis, fell within the [[West Bank]] territory under [[Jordan|Jordanian]] rule.

#### Israel

In 1967, after the [[Six-Day War]] the residents of Imwas [[1967 Palestinian exodus|Israeli forces expelled the population]] and the village was razed by bulldozers,[^34] leaving the Byzantine-crusader church, called in Arabic, *al-Kenisah,*[^35] intact in their cemetery. The Catholic congregation, the [[Community of the Beatitudes]], renovated the site in 1967–1970 and opened the French Center for the Study of the Prehistory of the Land of Israel next to it where they were allowed to settle in 1993.[^36]

Subsequently, [[Canada Park]] was created in 1973, financed by the [[Jewish National Fund]] (JNF) of Canada, and included the plantation of a forest on the rubble of Imwas.[^37] The site became a favourite picnic ground for Israelis[^38] and the Latrun salient an area of Israeli commemoration of its [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|War of Independence]].[^39][^40]

#### Archaeology

Archaeological excavations in [[Imwas]] started in the late 19th century and continue nowadays: Clermont-Ganneau (1874), J.-B. Guillemot (1883–1887), [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] Fathers [[Louis-Hugues Vincent|L.-H. Vincent]] & [[F.-M. Abel]] (1924–1930),[^41] [[Yizhar Hirschfeld|Y. Hirschfeld]] (1975),[^42] M. Gichon (1978),[^43] Mikko Louhivuori, M. Piccirillo, V. Michel, K.-H. Fleckenstein (since 1994).[^44] During excavations in [[Canada Park]] (Ayalon forest) ruins of Emmaus fortifications from the Hasmonean era were discovered, along with a Roman [[Public bathing|bathhouse]] from the 3rd century CE, Jewish burial caves from the 1st century CE, Roman-Byzantine hydraulic installations, oil presses and tombs. Other findings were coins, oil lamps, vessels, jewellery. The eastern (rear) three-[[Apsidal|apsidal]] wall of the Byzantine church was cleared, with an external [[Baptistery|baptistery]] and polychrome mosaics, as well as walls of the Crusader church which were built against the central Byzantine [[Apse|apse]] (12th century). In the area of Emmaus, several [[Hebrew]], [[Samaritan]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and Latin inscriptions carved on stones have been found.

#### Identification with the Gospel site

Most manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke which came down to us indicate the distance of 60 stadia (c. 11 km) between Jerusalem and Emmaus. However, there are several manuscripts which state the distance as 160 stadia (31 km). These include the [[Uncial|uncial]] manuscripts א ([[Codex Sinaiticus]]), Θ, Ν, Κ, Π, 079 and cursive ([[Minuscule cursive|minuscule]]) manuscripts 158, 175, 223, 237, 420, as well as ancient lectionaries[^45] and translations into Latin (some manuscripts of the Vetus Latina,[^46] high-quality manuscripts of the [[Vulgate]][^47]), in Aramaic,[^48] [[Georgian language|Georgian]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]] languages.[^49] The version of 60 stadia has been adopted for the printed editions of the Gospel of Luke since the 16th century. The main argument against the version of 160 stadia claims that it is impossible to walk such a distance in one day. In keeping with the principle of [[Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio difficilior, lectio verior]], the most difficult version is presumed to be genuine, since ancient copyists of the Bible were inclined to change the text in order to facilitate understanding, but not vice versa. It is possible to walk from Jerusalem to Emmaus and back in one day.[^50]

The ancient Jewish sources ([[1 Maccabees]], Josephus Flavius, Talmud and Midrash) mention only one village called Emmaus in the area of Jerusalem: Emmaus of Ajalon Valley.[^51] For example, in the "Jewish War" (4, 8, 1) Josephus Flavius mentions that [[Vespasian]] placed the 5th Macedonian Legion in Emmaus. This has been confirmed by archaeologists who have discovered inscribed tombstones of the Legion's soldiers in the area of Emmaus.[^52] (The village of Motza, located 30 stadia (c. 4 mi or 6 km) away from Jerusalem, is mentioned in medieval Greek manuscripts of the "Jewish war" of Josephus Flavius (7,6,6) under the name of Ammaus, apparently as a result of copyists' mistake).[^53][^54]

The ancient Christian tradition of the [[Church Fathers]], as well as pilgrims to the Holy Land during the Roman-Byzantine period, unanimously recognized Nicopolis as the Emmaus in the Gospel of Luke ([[Origen]] (presumably), Eusebius of Caesarea,[^55] St. Jerome,[^56] [[Hesychius of Jerusalem]],[^57] [[Theophanes the Confessor]],[^58] [[Sozomen]],[^59] Theodosius,[^60] etc.).

### Al-Qubeiba/Castellum Emmaus/Chubebe/Qubaibat

Another possibility is the village of [[Al-Qubeiba, Jerusalem|al-Qubeiba]], west of [[Nabi Samwil]] on the Beit Horon road northwest of Jerusalem. The town, meaning "little domes" in Arabic, is located at about 65 stadia from Jerusalem. A Roman fort subsequently named Castellum Emmaus (from the Latin root castra, meaning encampment) was discovered at the site in 1099 by the Crusaders. However, there is no source from the Roman, Byzantine or Early Muslim periods naming it as "Emmaus" for the time of Jesus. Whether [[Josephus]] (who puts Emmaus at a distance of thirty *[[Stadion (unit)|stadia]]* from Jerusalem)[^61] was referring to this place is now uncertain.[^62] However, the Gospel of Luke speaks of 60 stadia[^63] ([Luke 24:13](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+24%3A13&version=ISV)), a distance very close to the actual 65 stadia to Qubeibeh.

In the 12th century, the Crusaders of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] called the site "Small Mahomeria", in order to distinguish it from the "[[Large Mahomeria]]" near [[Ramallah]]. Sounding similar to "Mahommed", the term was used in medieval times to describe a place inhabited or used for prayer by Muslims. It was referred to as Qubaibat for the first time at the end of that same century by the writer [[Abu Shama]], who writes in his *Book of the Two Gardens* about a Muslim prince falling into the hands of the Crusaders at this spot. The Franciscans built a church here in 1902, on the ruins of a Crusader basilica.

During the Second World War, British authorities held Franciscans of Italian and German nationality at Emmaus-Qubeibeh. While there, [[Bellarmino Bagatti]] conducted excavations from 1940 to 1944 which revealed artifacts from the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and Crusader periods. Inspired by Bagatti's work, [[Virgilio Canio Corbo]] also undertook some experimental explorations.

### Abu-Ghosh/Kiryat Anavim

[[Abu Ghosh]] is located in the middle of the Kiryat Yearim Ridge Route between Nicopolis and Jerusalem, nine miles (83 stadia) from the capital. A former Minorite convent with a Gothic church was turned into a stable. Robinson dated it to the [[Crusades|Crusader]] period and declared it "more perfectly preserved than any other ancient church in Palestine." Excavations carried out in 1944 supported the identification with Fontenoid, a site the Crusaders held for a while to be Emmaus before accepting Nicopolis as the "real" Emmaus.

### Emmaus/Colonia/Motza/Ammassa/Ammaous/Khirbet Mizza

[[Qalunya, Jerusalem|Colonia]], between Abu Ghosh and Jerusalem on the Kiryat Yearim Ridge Route, is another possibility. At a distance of c. 8 km (5 mi) from Jerusalem, it was referred to as [[Motza|Mozah]] in the Old Testament ([Joshua 18:26](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Joshua%2018:26&version=nrsv)). Listed among the Benjamite cities of [Joshua 18:26](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Joshua%2018:26&version=nrsv), it was referred to in the Talmud as a place where people would come to cut young willow branches as a part of the celebration of [[Sukkot]] ([[Mishnah]], [[Sukkah (Talmud)|Sukkah]] 4.5: 178). Motza was identified as the Emmaus of Luke in 1881 by William F. Birch (1840–1916) of the [[Palestine Exploration Fund]], and again in 1893 by Paulo Savi.[^64] One mile to the north of modern Motza is a ruin called [[Mevaseret Zion|Khirbet Beit Mizza]], which was identified by some scholars as the biblical Mozah, until recent excavations placed Mozah at Khirbet Mizza (without "Beit"), as the ruins of Qalunya/Colonia are called in Arabic.[^65]

Excavations in 2001–2003 headed by Professor [[Carsten Peter Thiede]] were cut short by his sudden death in 2004. Thiede was a strong proponent of Motza as the real Emmaus. He offered that the Latin *Amassa* and the Greek *Ammaous* are derived from the biblical Hebrew name Motza: Motza – ha-Motza ("ha" is the Hebrew equivalent of the definite article "the") – ha-Mosa – Amosa – Amaous – Emmaus. His excavation summaries were removed from the website of the [[Basel]] college he was teaching at, but a book and at least one article he published on the topic are available.[^66][^63][^67] He contended that neither Nicopolis, Abu Ghosh, or Al-Qubeiba can be considered because the first was located too far from Jerusalem, while the two others were not called Emmaus at the time of Jesus.[^68]

Josephus Flavius writes in *[[Antiquities of the Jews]]* about a city called Emmaus in the context of the [[Maccabean Revolt]], which corresponds well with the large city later called Emmaus Nicopolis, located at over 170 Roman stadia from Jerusalem, while in *[[The Jewish War]]* he brings up another Emmaus, just 30 Roman stadia from Jerusalem, where [[Vespasian]] settled 800 Roman legionnaires after the [[First Jewish Revolt]].[^63][^69] The ancient Latin manuscripts use "Amassa", while the medieval Greek manuscripts use "Ammaous". The newly created [[Colonia (Roman)|Roman "colonia"]] soon made the old name disappear: even the Jewish works of the 3rd-5th centuries, the [[Mishnah]], the [[Talmud|Babylonian]] and the [[Jerusalem Talmud]], talk about "Qeloniya", an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] distortion of "colonia".[^63] This name survived into modern times in Arabic as "[[Qalunya]]".[^63] This was indeed always a village, not a city like Emmaus Nicopolis, and thus fits the description by Luke (κωμη "village") much better than the latter.[^63] The difference in distance to Jerusalem between Luke's and Josephus' Emmaus, 60 vs. 30 stadia, is still much smaller than the one to Nicopolis, which lays fully 176 stadia down the Roman road from Jerusalem.[^63] Thiede recalculated the actual distance between Jerusalem's western city gate at the time, and his excavation site at Motza which unearthed the Jewish village that predated the Roman veterans colony, and came up with a figure of 46 stadia.[^63] That would put it squarely in the middle between Luke's and Josephus' stated distances, which Thiede considers a good approximation for the time.[^63] Thiede's excavation produced Jewish artifacts of the time preceding the [[Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)|fall of Jerusalem]] in 70 CE, giving substance to his claim to have found Luke's Emmaus, which had necessarily to be settled by Jews.[^63] With no other Emmaus in the vicinity of Jerusalem, Motza was thus the only credible candidate.[^63]

### Horvat 'Eqed

Horvat 'Eqed, situated on a hilltop 2 km (1.2 mi) east of Emmaus Nicopolis, is a recent candidate for the site of ancient Emmaus. This archaeological site features significant fortifications dating back to the second century BC, potentially attributed to the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] general [[Bacchides (general)|Bacchides]] and reinforced during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], in the early 2nd century AD.[^19][^70] Discoveries at the site include [[Mikveh|ritual baths]], a [[Bar Kokhba hiding complexes|hiding system]] used during the revolt, as well as various artifacts like [[Bar Kokhba revolt coinage|Bar Kokhba coinage]] and weaponry.[^71][^19]

According to one theory, Emmaus was originally located at Horvat 'Eqed during the Hellenistic and early Roman periods, and was later abandoned in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. The name Emmaus later transferred to the site of Emmaus Nicopolis, where the city was located in the Roman and Byzantine periods.[^19]

## Possible symbolic identification

One of the oldest extant versions of the Gospel of Luke, preserved in the [[Codex Bezae]], reads "Oulammaus" instead of Emmaus. In [[Septuagint]], the [[Greek language|Greek]] translation of the [[Old Testament]] scriptures, Oulammaus was the place where [[Jacob]] was visited by God in his dream, while sleeping on a rock.[^72] However, Oulammaus was not a real place name but a translation mistake. The original name in Hebrew was "Luz". This mistake was later corrected, but was still there at the time when the Gospel was written around AD 100\. Thus, a theory has been put forward[^73][^74] that the story in the Gospel was merely symbolic, drawing a parallel between Jacob being visited by God and the disciples being visited by Jesus.

## Contemporary use

[[Emmaus, Pennsylvania]], a township in the [[Lehigh Valley]] region of the United States, draws its name from the Biblical references to Emmaus.

## Notable residents

-   [[Rabbi Akiva]][^67]

## Bibliography

-   Duvignau, P. 1937. [Emmaüs, le site – le mystère](https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B1usmE8wNlGaOWU5NWE0MzUtM2MzYS00NTQ1LWI2ODItNDU0OTJjMDU5MGI4&hl=en_US), Paris,
-   Fleckenstein, K.-H., M. Louhivuori, R. Riesner, "Emmaus in Judäa", Giessen-Basel, 2003.[[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 3-7655-9811-9.
-   [[Marie-Joseph Lagrange|Lagrange, Marie-Joseph]] (1921). [*Evangile selon Saint Luc*](https://archive.org/details/evangileselonsai00lagruoft). Paris: Libraire Victor Lecoffre.
-   Michel, V., "Le complexe ecclésiastique d'Emmaüs-Nicopolis", Paris, Sorbonne,1996–1997, pro manuscripto.
-   [[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Robinson, Edward]]; [[Eli Smith|Smith, Eli]] (1841). [*Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petraea: A Journal of Travels in the year 1838*](https://archive.org/details/biblicalresearc00smitgoog). Vol. 2\. Boston: [[Crocker & Brewster]].
-   [[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Robinson, Edward]]; [[Eli Smith|Smith, Eli]] (1856). [*Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and adjacent regions: A Journal of Travels in the year 1852*](https://archive.org/details/laterbiblicalre01smitgoog). London: [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]].
-   [[Adolf Schlatter|Schlatter, A.]] (1896). ["Einige Ergebnisse aus Niese's Ausgabe des Josephus"](https://archive.org/details/zeitschriftdesde19deut). *Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins*. **19**: [221](https://archive.org/stream/zeitschriftdesde19deut#page/n328/mode/1up)–231.
-   [[Tom Segev|Segev, Tom]] (2007). [*1967: Israel, the War, and the Year that Transformed the Middle East*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ggLatcD7gW4C). Translated by Jessica Cohen. [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]]. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 978-0-8050-7057-6.
-   [[Moshe Sharon|Sharon, Moshe]] (1997). [*Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, A*](https://books.google.com/books?id=j1rSzWgHMjoC). Vol. 1\. BRILL. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 90-04-10833-5.
-   [[Louis-Hugues Vincent|Vincent, Louis-Hugues]]; [[Félix-Marie Abel|Abel, Félix-Marie]] (1932). [*Emmaüs, Sa Basilique Et Son Histoire*](https://archive.org/details/VincentEtAbelEmmausSaBasiliqueEtSonHistoire) (in French). Vol. 1\. Paris.

## Notes

[^1]: Holy Bible: St. Luke 24: 13-35; *Encyclopedia Judaica*, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972, "Emmaus," Vol. 6, pp. 726-727
[^2]: Siméon Vailhé (1909). ["Emmaus"](https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05405a.htm). *The Catholic Encyclopedia*. Vol. 5\. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
[^3]: ["Bible Search: hamath"](http://biblehub.net/search.php?q=hamath). *biblehub.net*. Retrieved June 14, 2023.
[^4]: ["Emmaus-Nicopolis"](http://www.emmaus-nicopolis.org/). [[Community of the Beatitudes]]. 2016. Retrieved April 11, 2016.
[^5]: 'Emmaus,' in Geoffrey W. Bromiley (ed.), [*International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA77) Wm.B. Eerdmanns Publishers 1995 p.77
[^6]: Sharon, 1997, p. [80](https://books.google.com/books?id=j1rSzWgHMjoC&pg=PA80)
[^7]: Esti Dvorjetski, [*Leisure, Pleasure and Healing: Spa Culture and Medicine in Ancient Eastern Mediterranean,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6RCbdK8JxjsC&pg=PA220) BRILL, 2007 p.221.
[^8]: ["Ayalon Canada Park – Biblical & Modern Israel"](http://www.kkl.org.il/eng/tourism-and-recreation/forests-and-parks/ayalon-canada-park.aspx). *Forests, Parks and Sites*. [[Jewish National Fund]]. 2016. Retrieved April 11, 2016.
[^9]: [[Sozomen]] (1855). [*The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440*](https://archive.org/details/ecclesiasticalh00walfgoog). Henry G. Bohn. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 9780790565682. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [78734887](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/78734887). , p. [241 (239)](https://archive.org/details/ecclesiasticalh00walfgoog/page/n259/mode/1up)
[^10]: [[Morna Hooker|Hooker, Morna D.]] (1991). *A Commentary on the Gospel according to St. Mark*. Black's New Testament commentaries. London: A & C Black. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 978-0-7136-3284-2. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [476570833](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/476570833).
[^11]: [[Hugh Chisholm|Chisholm, Hugh]], ed. (1911). ["Emmaus"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Emmaus) . *[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]*. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 342.
[^12]: Reece, S. (June 14, 2002). ["Seven Stades to Emmaus"](https://www.academia.edu/30821102). *New Testament Studies*. **48** (2): 262–266\. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[10.1017/S0028688502000188](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0028688502000188). [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [170756284](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170756284). Retrieved June 14, 2023 – via www.academia.edu.
[^13]: [[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Robinson, E.]]; [[Eli Smith|Smith, E.]] (1856). [*Later Biblical Researches in Palestine, and in the Adjacent Regions: A Journal of Travels in the year 1852*](https://archive.org/details/laterbiblicalre01smitgoog/page/n7/mode/1up?view=theater). Boston; London: [[Crocker & Brewster]]. pp. [146](https://archive.org/details/laterbiblicalre01smitgoog/page/146/mode/1up?view=theater)–150. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [7090106](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7090106).
[^14]: Steve Mason, (ed.), [*Flavius Josephus : translation and Commentary,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NHRbu6ee_p0C&pg=PA44) Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary. Judean war. Vol. 1B, BRILL, 2008 p.44 n.388.
[^15]: H. Guggenheimer, trans., Berlin-N.Y. 2001, p.609
[^16]: ["Emmaus-Nicopolis"](https://www.emmaus-nicopolis.org/). *www.emmaus-nicopolis.org*. Retrieved June 14, 2023.
[^17]: Thiede [p. 55](https://books.google.com/books?id=b0edm6i-8QwC&pg=PA55).
[^18]: see [[Josephus Flavius]], "The Jewish War" 3,3,5
[^19]: Hizmi, Hananya; Haber, Michal; Aharonvich, Evgeny (2013). "From the Maccabees to Bar Kokhba: Evidence of Fortification and Revolt at Khirbet el-'Aqd: The Results of the Renewed 2012 Excavations". *New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem*. **7**: 6–24.
[^20]: "The Jewish War" 2, 4, 3; 2, 20, 4; 3, 3, 5; 4, 8, 1; 5, 1, 6; "The Antiquities of the Jews" 14, 11, 2; 14, 15, 7; 17, 10, 7–9
[^21]: "Antiquities of the Jews" 17, 10, 7–9
[^22]: Sharon, 1997, [p.79](https://books.google.com/books?id=j1rSzWgHMjoC&pg=PA79)
[^23]: Josephus, [[The Jewish War|*De Bello Iudaico*]] Bk 7,6:6.
[^24]: Günter Stemberger,'Jews and Graeco-Roman Culture:from Alexander to Theodosius 11,' in James K. Aitken, James Carleton Paget (eds.), [*The Jewish-Greek Tradition in Antiquity and the Byzantine Empire,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vWGbBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29) Cambridge University Press, 2014 pp.15–36 p.29.
[^25]: Khalidi, W (1992). *All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948*. Washington D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies. p. 309\. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 0-88728-224-5.
[^26]: ["Emmaus - Nikopolis - Hasmonean period fortress"](https://www.biblewalks.com/emmausfortress). *www.biblewalks.com*. Retrieved June 14, 2023.
[^27]: William Adler, 'The Kingdom of Edessa and the Creation of a Christian Aristocracy,' in Natalie B. Dohrmann, Annette Yoshiko Reed (eds.),[*Jews, Christians, and the Roman Empire: The Poetics of Power in Late Antiquity,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=_dVAAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58) University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013 pp. 43–61 p.58.
[^28]: "Onomasticon," 90:15–17, a text written in 290–325 A.D., G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville, trans., Jerusalem, 2003
[^29]: Barag, Dan (2009), ["Samaritan writing and writings"](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/from-hellenism-to-islam/samaritan-writing-and-writings/51AC5D4D448CAD8B75EFE6B2682EA543), in Wasserstein, David J.; Cotton, Hannah M.; Price, Jonathan J.; Hoyland, Robert G. (eds.), *From Hellenism to Islam: Cultural and Linguistic Change in the Roman Near East*, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 311–313, [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[10.1017/cbo9780511641992.014](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511641992.014), [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 978-0-521-87581-3, retrieved 2025-08-20
[^30]: Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 2, p. [363](https://archive.org/stream/biblicalresearc00smitgoog#page/n385/mode/1up)
[^31]: Robinson and Smith, 1856, pp. [146](https://archive.org/stream/laterbiblicalre01smitgoog#page/n195/mode/1up)\-148
[^32]: Brunot, S.J.C., Amedee. *Mariam, The Little Arab* (Third ed.). The Carmel of Maria Regina. p. 89.
[^33]: Jardine, R.F.; McArthur Davies, B.A. (1948). *A Gazetteer of the Place Names which appear in the small-scale Maps of Palestine and Trans-Jordan*. Jerusalem: Government of Palestine. p. 39\. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [610327173](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/610327173).
[^34]: Rich Wiles, [*Behind the Wall: Life, Love, and Struggle in Palestine*](https://books.google.com/books?id=z4ZWqebEnHsC), Potomac Books, Inc., 2010, pp. [17–24](https://books.google.com/books?id=z4ZWqebEnHsC&pg=PA17).
[^35]: Dvorjetski p.221.
[^36]: Rami Degani, Ruth Kark,'Christian and Messianic Jews' Communes in Israel:Past, Present and Future,' in Eliezer Ben-Rafael, Yaacov Oved, Menachem Topel (eds.) [*The Communal Idea in the 21st Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WQozAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA236), BRILL, 2012, pp.221–239 p.236.
[^37]: [[Max Blumenthal]], *Goliath: Life and Loathing in Greater Israel*, [[Nation Books]], 2014 p.[185](https://books.google.com/books?id=lVIeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA185)
[^38]: [[Adam LeBor]], [*City of Oranges: Arabs and Jews in Jaffa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XEWQXRLQsqAC&pg=PA326), A&C Black, 2007 p.326.
[^39]: Ben-Yehuda, Nachman (1996). [*The Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking in Israel*](http://uwpress.wisc.edu/books/0117.htm). [[University of Wisconsin Press]]. pp. 159–160.
[^40]: ["Yad La'Shyrion (Armored Corps) Museum"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090505181748/http://www.ilmuseums.com/museum_eng.asp?id=133). Archived from [the original](http://www.ilmuseums.com/museum_eng.asp?id=133) on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
[^41]: Vincent, Abel "Emmaüs", Paris, 1932
[^42]: Y. Hirschfeld, "A Hidraulic Installation in the Water-Supply System of Emmaus-Nicopolis", IEJ, 1978
[^43]: M. Gichon, "Roman Bath-houses in Eretz Israel", Qadmoniot 11, 1978
[^44]: K.-H. Fleckenstein, M. Louhivuori, R. Riesner, "Emmaus in Judäa", Giessen-Basel, 2003.[[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 3-7655-9811-9
[^45]: L844, L2211
[^46]: e.g. [[Codex Sangermanensis]]
[^47]: including the oldest of them, Codex Fuldensis
[^48]: Palestinian [[Evangeliary]]
[^49]: Lagrange, Wieland Willker (1921). [*A Textual Commentary on the Greek Gospels*](https://web.archive.org/web/20140903094324/http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/wie/TCG/TC-Luke.pdf) (PDF). Vol. 3\. pp. [617–618](https://archive.org/stream/MN41472ucmf_1#page/n793/mode/2up). Archived from [the original](http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/wie/TCG/TC-Luke.pdf) (PDF) on 2014-09-03. Retrieved 2014-08-28.
[^50]: Since the two disciples were on their way to Emmaus the same day as the women visited the tomb, of which they told Jesus when He joined them, and after He vanished, they, in that same hour, rose and returned to Jerusalem, it's clear enough that one can make the round trip within one day; cf. Holy Bible: St. Luke 24; *Encyclopedia Judaica*, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972, "Emmaus," Vol. 6, ca. pp. 726-727.
[^51]: Strack, Billerbeck, "Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud & Midrasch", vol II, München, 1924,1989, p.p. 269-271. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 3-406-02725-3
[^52]: See : P. M. Séjourné, "Nouvelles de Jérusalem", RB 1897, p. 131; E. Michon, "Inscription d'Amwas", RB 1898, p. 269-271; J. H. Landau, "Two Inscribed Tombstones", "Atiqot", vol. XI, Jerusalem, 1976.
[^53]: Robinson and Smith, 1856, p. [149](https://archive.org/stream/laterbiblicalre01smitgoog#page/n198/mode/1up)
[^54]: Schlatter, 1896, p. [222](https://archive.org/stream/zeitschriftdesde19deut#page/n329/mode/1up); Vincent & Abel, 1932, pp. [284](https://archive.org/stream/VincentEtAbelEmmausSaBasiliqueEtSonHistoire/Vincent%20et%20Abel%2C%20Emmaus%2C%20sa%20Basilique%20et%20son%20histoire%20#page/n293/mode/1up)–285
[^55]: "Onomasticon"
[^56]: Letter 108, PL XXII, 833 and other texts
[^57]: Quaestiones », PG XCIII, 1444
[^58]: "Chronografia", PG CVIII, 160
[^59]: "Ecclesiastical History", PG LXVII, 180
[^60]: "De situ Terrae sanctae", 139
[^61]: [[Josephus]], *[[The Jewish War]]* [7.6.6.](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0147%3Abook%3D7%3Awhiston+chapter%3D6%3Awhiston+section%3D6) (Greek text)
[^62]: [[William Whiston]], the translator of Josephus' works into English, thought that Josephus' figure for Emmaus was in error, where the original Greek text writes: "He (Caesar Vespasian) assigned a place for eight hundred men only, whom he had dismissed from his army, which he gave them for their habitation; it is called Emmaus, and is distant from Jerusalem **thirty** *stadia*." (See Greek text: [... ὃ καλεῖται μὲν Ἀμμαοῦς, ἀπέχει δὲ τῶν Ἱεροσολύμων σταδίους τριάκοντα](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0147%3Abook%3D7%3Awhiston+chapter%3D6%3Awhiston+section%3D6)). In most English editions of Josephus' *The Jewish War* 7.216, the text has been amended to read "...Emmaus, and is distant from Jerusalem **threescore** (sixty) *stadia*." See The Jewish War (William Whiston (ed.), 7.216 ([note 2](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D7%3Awhiston+chapter%3D6%3Awhiston+section%3D6)).
[^63]: [[Carsten Peter Thiede|Thiede, Carsten Peter]] (2005). ["Die Wiederentdeckung von Emmaus bei Jerusalem"](https://web.archive.org/web/20141031204305/http://jandricsrobert.hu/Thiede/Emmausindex.html) \[Rediscovering Emmaus near Jerusalem\]. *[[Zeitschrift für antikes Christentum]]*. [[Offprint]] (in German). **8** (3). Walter de Gruyter: 593–599 \[593\]. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[10.1515/zach.2005.8.3.593](https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzach.2005.8.3.593). [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [170175267](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170175267). Archived from [the original](http://jandricsrobert.hu/Thiede/Emmausindex.html) on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
[^64]: W. F. Birch, "Emmaus", Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Statement 13 (1881), pp. 237-38; Paulo Savi, "Emmaus", [[Revue Biblique]] 2 (1893), pp. 223-27.
[^65]: [[Israel Finkelstein|Finkelstein, Israel]]; Gadot, Yuval (2015). ["Mozah, Nephtoah and royal estates in the Jerusalem highlands"](https://www.academia.edu/29974640). *Semitica et Classica. International Journal of Oriental and Mediterranean Studies*. **VIII**. [[Brepols]]: 227–234 \[227–8\]. Retrieved 24 May 2018 – via academia.edu.
[^66]: [[Carsten Peter Thiede|Thiede, Carsten Peter]]. ["Ausgrabung einer jüdisch-römischen Siedlung aus biblischen Zeiten in Israel: Emmaus (Moza / Colonia)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20050521164551/http://www.sthbasel.ch/downloads/Prospekt_Ausgrabung_2005.pdf) (PDF). Staatsunabhängige Theologische Hochschule Basel (STH). Archived from [the original](http://www.sthbasel.ch/downloads/Prospekt_Ausgrabung_2005.pdf) (PDF) on May 21, 2005. Retrieved 27 August 2005.
[^67]: [[Carsten Peter Thiede|Thiede, Carsten Peter]] (2006). [*The Emmaus Mystery: Discovering Evidence for the Risen Christ*](https://books.google.com/books?id=b0edm6i-8QwC). Bloomsbury Academic. p. [184](https://books.google.com/books?id=b0edm6i-8QwC&pg=PA184). [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 978-0-8264-8067-5 – via Google Books. … the biblical history of Moza, the Christian history of Emmaus, and the Jewish history of the Mishnaic period met at this site.
[^68]: ["Lokalisierung des neutestamentlichen Emmaus"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150924021243/http://www.geistigenahrung.org/ftopic10290.html) \[Identification of New Testament-era Emmaus\]. *Geistige Nahrung Dein Forum* (in German). Archived from [the original](http://www.geistigenahrung.org/ftopic10290.html) on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-04-12.
[^69]: Josephus. ["Chapter 6"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_VII/Chapter_6) . *[[The Jewish War]]*. Vol. 7\. Translated by William Whiston. Paragraph 6 – via [[Wikisource]].
[^70]: Gichon, M. (1981). "Kh. 'Aqd". *Hadashot Arkheologiyot*. **76**: 28.
[^71]: Gichon, Mordechai; Vitale, Michaela (1991). ["Arrow-Heads from Ḥorvat 'Eqed"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/27926234). *Israel Exploration Journal*. **41** (4): 242–257\. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] [0021-2059](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-2059).
[^72]: See [Genesis 28:10–19](https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2028:10–19&version=nrsv).
[^73]: Read-Heimerdinger, Jenny (1999). ["Where is Emmaus? Clues in the Text of Luke 24 in Codex Bezae"](https://books.google.com/books?id=XxJJGf1eBhgC&pg=PA229). In Taylor, D.G.K. (ed.). [*Studies in the Early Text of the Gospels and Acts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XxJJGf1eBhgC). Birmingham University Press. pp. 229–44\. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] 978-1-902459-03-5. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [464435795](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/464435795) – via Google Books.
[^74]: Read-Heimerdinger, Jenny; Rius-Camps, Josep (2002). ["Emmaous or Oulammaous? Luke's Use of the Jewish Scriptures in the Text of Luke 24 in Codex Bezae"](http://www.raco.cat/index.php/RevistaTeologia/article/view/71224). *Revista Catalana de Teologia*. **27** (1): 23–42 – via Revistes Catalanes amb Accés Obert (RACO).